###### MONGOLIAN DEFENSE WHITE PAPER 1997/1998 Ulaanbaatar 1998 ----- This White Paper has been issued by the Ministry of Defense of Mongolia. It was Published in Mongolian and English in February 1998 by the Institute for Strategic Studies at the Ministry of Defense. ----- ###### CONTENTS **Foreword** **1** **Introduction** **3** **Chapter One. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT** **OF MONGOLIA'S SECURITY** Changes in the global international situation 9 General trends of the international situation in the Asia-Pacific region 11 Key issues of regional peace and security. 13 Issues of regional peace and security and Mongolia 16 - New circumstances. 16 - Relationships with Russia and China 19 **Chapter Two. ENSURANCE OF** **NATIONAL SECURITY** The national interests of Mongolia 25 The substance of national security; ways and means of ensuring it 26 The system of ensuring national security 29 **Chapter Three. BASIC ISSUES OF** **DEFENSE POLICY** On the military traditions of Mongolian statehood 35 Legal basis. 38 Military doctrine 42 ----- Defense system 47 Foreign relations and international cooperation 50 Defense budget 53 **Chapter Four. ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA** The armed forces and their mission 59 Structure and organization 61 Development trends 65 Civilian support activities 67 ###### • Civil defense activities 67 • Construction corps activities. 70 **Appendices.** **.79** ----- ###### FOREWORD More than seven years have elapsed since Mongolia launched a comprehensive program of political, social and economic reform by embarking on the road of democ- ratization. During this short span, a political democratic orientation established itself, the people of Mongolia rid themselves of years of intellectual bondage, and social transformation and a law-governed statehood became a reality. The first democratic Constitution has been promulgated and reliable legal guarantees have been created for state and social re- form. Decisive actions have been taken towards transforming the economy to free-market relations, the social production sector has ###### been stabilized and there have appeared signs that the country can overcome crisis. The prestige of Mongolia is continuously growing in the international arena. Alongside this, decisive military and political transformations are taking place in the external environment and geopolitical space surrounding Mongolia; consequently, there have appeared numerous new factors which could affect regional security as well as the future development of Mongolia. All countries and nations, in the process of their historical development, accumulate national values, which can neither be left in oblivion or discarded in times of trial. This is a universal facet of human civilization. The Mongolians have preserved the practice, customs and traditions of managing and running a state, the national culture and mode of life, and protected their land as a valuable asset left them by their ancestors. Their continued protection remains the most important duty of the Mongolian state. ----- Many nations around the world closely follow the democratic changes underway in Mongolia today, and in view of this, it has become imperative to provide them with accurate and comprehen- sive information about Mongolia's defense policy. That is why, on behalf of the Government of Mongolia, we have decided to publish the Defense White Paper of Mongolia which throws light on the essence and substance of the new state defense policy. We hope that the White Paper will help both the international community and the citizens of Mongolia get a better understanding of the policy being conducted by the Government of Mongolia designed to ensure secu- rity and international cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region, consoli- date trust and confidence among nations, and strengthen and develop friendly relations with the neighboring countries on an equal footing. With the rapid advance of democratic reforms in Mongolia and the associated profound changes in its political and economic systems and social consciousness, the notions of war and peace, military and army are becoming enriched with new substance and ###### content. All this draws the keen interest of our people which also has become an important justification for the publication of the White Paper. As the country increasingly embraces democracy, the people of Mongolia have received greater freedom to express their views and opinions on all issues related to the activities of the state, including its defense policy. All citizens of Mongolia, military personnel and reservists included, are entitled to concrete information on our de- fense policy and armed forces. It is our firm conviction that the people of Mongolia and the world community will understand and respect the fact that the de- fense policy being pursued by us is forthright, with a vision that is compatible with the universal trend of human development, and is of a firm adherence to the principles of mutual trust and confidence. **Member of the** **Government of Mongolia.** **Minister of Defense** ----- ###### INTRODUCTION Our purpose in publishing the Defense White Paper of Mongolia is to make comprehensible the state's defense policy and its reasons for reforming the armed forces in line with the new conditions and circumstances in which it finds itself; and to disseminate information about the essence and substance of the defense policy's future trends, in order to gain the support of the international community and the citizens of Mongolia. Most importantly, an effort has been made to determine the position and role of Mongolia in the present and future development of the international community while evaluating the substance and the inter-relationship in the profound changes that have embraced the world towards the end of the 20[th] century. In recent years, instead of confrontation and rivalry, influen- tial super powers are striving to promote mutual understanding and cooperation, which has pushed to the background the potential dan- ger of a universal and nuclear war. Alongside this, we are living in a time when the role of military means in the relationship among nations and in international relations generally no longer has the significance it once did. The rivalry between the two major blocs, which had a decisive role in determining the world order, ended with the disintegration of socialism as a system and its stronghold - the Soviet Union. Never- theless, contradictions and confrontations continue to persist in rela- tions among nations and various armed conflicts continue to flare up in different regions around the world. Mongolia's foreign policy is basically focused on the Asia- Pacific region. Although relationship among regional nations and its state of affairs make it possible to view the future with optimism, there continue to be problems that cause concern. ----- With the end of the Cold War, nations and peoples in the Asia-Pacific region have embarked on the path of democracy, mak- ing it the future course of their development. However, relations among the regional countries, which at one time belonged to one of the two major global systems continue to be bogged down in contra- dictions of an economic, political, territorial, religious and ethnic nature. Such contradictions and conflicts are erupting in different regions which, at times, are growing into armed conflicts. Geographically, Mongolia is situated at an important geo- strategic bridgehead of the Asian continent. It stands at the cross- roads of the political, economic and cultural interests of the regional countries and super powers, and at the junction of influence of the major world religions. We cannot help but remember the enormous impact the contradiction and rivalry of the major global powers as they sought to preserve and protect their interests in Asia, and the impact of the numerous inter-and intra-state armed conflicts and wars in the immediate and distant areas had on the independence of Mongolia and the destiny of the Mongolian people. In view of this, it is natural that the state and government of ###### Mongolia attach enormous importance to its national security and with an eye toward safeguarding the national interests have been' focusing their attention on making the state defense policy much more rational. Political and social reforms, which began in Mongolia in the 1990's, have become the key factors in re-defining the country's defense policy. In addition, the demolition of the common defense system of the so-called socialist community countries, the cessation of outside military assistance and consequent drastic reduction in military expenditures, the number of armed forces personnel, and the terms of military service were all pre-cursors of the reforms needed in the defense sector. Until recent times, Mongolia's defense policy was geared pri- marily towards maintaining at a high level the armed preparedness of the country against military threats and danger from its southern neighbor, strengthening and developing its military cooperation with the former Soviet Union, educating the soldiers to be ready to defend ----- reliably the eastern frontiers of the socialist community countries, re- organizing army units and formations, and building up armaments and the number of military personnel to a level sufficient to carry out joint operations with the Soviet armed forces. Today, when major reductions in tension are taking place in international relations and military-political situations in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as in Mongolia's foreign and domestic policies and its relationships with its neighboring countries, the defense policy of Mongolia is being pro- foundly changed. In peacetime, Mongolia shall not join any military and politi- ###### cal alliance, permit foreign troops to be stationed on its territory, and refrain from branding a country or a nation as its enemy. In the past, humankind had come to the brink of a nuclear catastrophe due to the various conflicts and confrontations among the major global powers in their embittered struggle for markets and regions of interest. Other nations, in particular small and underdeveloped nations, took an active part in that confrontation, adding fuel to the fire, thereby further aggravating the situation, which, in turn, affected their own security and international prestige. The world has learned lesson from its past mistakes. Now that nuclear and other powerful conventional weapons have accumulated in the hands of humanity, we strongly believe that a policy of securing political objectives through military force and the support of any state or alliance which conducts such a policy has no place in the foreign policy of Mongolia. In the new conditions of the post-Cold War period, demo- cratic nations must join together to create the conditions for stable growth throughout the world and in the regions. Mongolia regards itself as a country promoting democracy, human rights and freedom and proceeding from this premise. Mongolia is prepared to contrib- ute to this cause by every possible and available means. In its defense policy, therefore, Mongolia shall work consistently to guarantee col- lective and international security, deepen friendly relations and trust among nations, prevent wars and armed conflicts, and create an effective mechanism for mutually beneficial international economic cooperation. ----- Mongolia's defense policy also takes its stance from the con- viction that each and every citizen of Mongolia must be prepared to safeguard the state's independence and the territorial integrity of the country. While striving to guarantee the country's independence and ###### territorial integrity primarily through political and diplomatic means, the country, in keeping with the Constitution, shall make every effort to strengthen and upgrade the armed forces solely for self-defense purposes, and to create an integral system of protection for the homeland by ensuring the support of the entire nation in this effort. Herein lies the quintessence of Mongolia's defense policy today. Our defense policy is determined on the basis of these na- tional security and foreign policy concepts and is being implemented in the interests of democracy and the entire nation. The safeguarding of the nation's core values is what bonds the Mongolian people together. One of the guarantees of ensuring the national security of Mongolia is a defense policy accepted by, and based on the support of, the entire nation. All these have become the basis of the Defense White Paper of Mongolia. It is hoped that the ideas expressed in the White Paper will make an important contribution to understanding the issues of Mongolia's vital security interests, not from the standpoint of the preference or power of any military and political alliande or any super power, but rather within a framework of political and diplo- matic actions compatible with the patterns of human development and values, equitable relations and confidence among nations. ###### Mongolia's first White Paper is an expression of its sincere desire to contribute to the creation of a collective security system in the Asia-Pacific region, support efforts designed to strengthen mili- tary trust among nations, join the ranks of nations aspiring for de- mocracy and to be in pace with global development and progress. It is also strongly hoped that the White Paper will become an important instrument of bringing Mongolia closer to its friends. ----- ###### CHAPTER ONE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA'S SECURITY Changes in the global international situation General trends of the international situation in the Asia-Pacific region Key issues of regional peace and security Issues of regional peace and security and Mongolia • New circumstances - Relationships with Russia and China ----- ###### EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA'S SECURITY Changes in the global international situation Following the disintegration of one of the two major blocs which defined the global order, the international situation is deter- mined by the fact that relationships and cooperation among states and the formation of new blocs and alliances are simultaneously consolidating and falling apart. The interrelationship among states which was formed after WWII is changing and is being replaced by a brand new process which, in fact, has become a fore-runner of the above situation. This process is likely to continue for some time and today, although the relationship among the countries which belonged to two different opposite systems is improving and assuming more of a partnership, the establishment of a new global order and a total end to the contradiction and rivalry among nations and peoples within its framework remains an issue for the future. The conclusion of the Cold War put an end to the division of the world into two opposite camps and to the predominating role of ideology in inter-state relations. As a result, there seemed to be a real opportunity for the development of mutual dependence of states, mutual trust, and cooperation in the economic and humanitarian sectors. ###### Gone is the time when countries around the world frantically built up arms and when humanity came to the brink of a nuclear conflagration. The barriers of ideology which divided mankind are no longer in place and economic, commercial, scientific, technological and informational relationships are no longer confined to national or alliance borders. All these changes are undoubtedly becoming a ma- jor trend and a major historical milestone in the progress of human ----- ###### societal development. International alignment for the benefit of na- tional and universal peace and progress has become a reality and regions and sub regions are developing rapidly. Cooperation between the regions of Europe and the Asia-Pacific has become a new devel- opment and ties between them are becoming increasingly active. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly evident that these global universal changes and underlying reasons, which are racing against time, are bringing in their wake many outstanding issues emanating from various sources. People around the world are alarmed by the conflicts persist- ing in some parts of large regions which were under the administra- tion and influence of the former Soviet Union, e.g., the armed conflicts between the different ethnic groups which erupted in the form of a civil war in the Caucuses, the Balkans, and Central Asia; and the bloodshed in some countries of the Middle East, South and South-East Asia, and Africa. Religious and nationalistic fanaticism, drug trafficking, inter- national terrorism, organized crime, and attempts to steal and sell nuclear materials are growing in both scale and scope in some sub regions around the world. The process of creating a system for ensuring security has already started in Western Europe and the desire of the rapidly developing sub-regions and countries to develop independently is becoming increasingly evident. The West is seeking to expand NATO eastward by bringing under their fold the Eastern European and Baltic region countries. In ###### retaliation, the Russian Federation has launched a policy and action designed to restrict the eastward expansion of NATO by seeking an ###### alliance with the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and some Asian countries which are gaining strength gradually. The Federation is working energetically to strike a military and political partnership with these countries. In addition, we are living at a time when the effort of influ- ential international organizations to keep under surveillance the pro- 10 ----- cess of establishing a new global order and manage the current state of relations between the nations is likely to grow and when many countries are increasingly adopting this trend in their foreign policies. ###### General trends of the international **situation in the Asia-Pacific region** The international situation in the Asia-Pacific region in re- cent years has been moving towards stability. This is a direct out- ###### come of both the radical changes which are taking place throughout the world and the developments in different regions. The renunciation by the major global powers of ideology and military force as the key instruments of securing "victory" and the end of the Cold War have had a very strong impact on stabilizing the regional international situation. Furthermore, ever-increasing eco- nomic cooperation based on friendly relations and confidence among regional countries has become one of the most important factors for securing stability. The end to the confrontation between the two systems which divided the Asia-Pacific region as well as the full normalization of relations between Russia and China and their preoccupation with securing internal stability and resolving economic and social prob- lems in their respective countries, have all had a positive influence on the regional situation. Major trans-national alliances are being formed and the influ- ence and role of such major international organizations as ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA and PECC on global developments are growing in ###### both scale and scope. In view of this, it is becoming increasingly evident that the nations in the western and eastern coasts of the Pacific will become the leading forces in global development in the foreseeable future. The European notion of common values has not yet devel- ###### oped in the Asia-Pacific region. This zone can be divided into several branch or sub-regions and energetic efforts are being made to de- velop unity and common values. 11 ----- Within this context, the rapid economic growth of China is a factor that needs to be followed closely. The influence of the United States and the Russian Federation in Asia is receding, in some re- spects, and the growing influence of China based on its sustainable economic progress is gradually filling this gap. This is becoming increasingly evident lately. This is result of the disintegration of the Soviet Union, which posed a constant pressure on China, and also the fact that China now is faced with greater opportunity to win for itself a favorable position in the Asia-Pacific region. With regard to political and diplomatic relations among states, the process of creating an alliance of democratic countries in the Asia-Pacific region is likely to take a relatively long time. However, the principle of tolerance "You live your life. Don't get in the way of the life of others" is likely to predominate in inter-state relations. It is becoming evident that some Muslim countries will not be involved in such a relationship. To the contrary, they are simultaneously trying to continue a state and social system that rests on a hard-line policy of regulating society and the life of individuals, and making it into an international policy. There are also many outstanding problems which could have an impact on international stability in the Asia-Pacific region. So far there is no real mechanism for control, limitation or assessment of the armament and troops of regional countries, whose armed forces in terms of manpower are relatively large. Although the Soviet Union no longer exists, the process of changing the military and strategic space it left behind is still con- tinuing. One of the major directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation is the Asia-Pacific region, and, in particular, maintaining its military and political influence in the region within the framework of the CIS. Six of the CIS countries are in Asia and they are increasingly seeking to take up independent positions by developing relations with the regional countries which are gaining in strength. In some respects, they are also seeking to strike alliances with the Islamic world from the position of religion and national fanaticism. The cessation of the East-West confrontation created the 12 ----- grounds for the emergence and exacerbation of latent conflicts of a regional, ethnic, religious nature and territorial disputes which ex- isted among these countries. This contradiction has surfaced more seriously in the Caucuses and Central Asia than elsewhere. The nuclear danger continues to be a potential threat in the Asia-Pacific region. There are signs of possible nuclear proliferation in the area and countries with dictatorial or authoritarian regimes may resort to the use of nuclear weapons to safeguard their narrow interests. Both the United States and Russia are striving to reduce nuclear weapons. China has acceded to the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. Such developments, on the one hand, will help improve nuclear weapons monitoring but, on the other, one issue of concern is that other nations could possess nuclear weapons thus facilitating nuclear proliferation. The nuclear programs of North Korea and Iran are of major concern, while the drive by India and Pakistan to develop nuclear weapons may likely become a new source of instability in the region. The acute and volatile relations between the two Koreas, China and Taiwan, and India and Pakistan, as well as the question of the Kurill Islands, the conflicts on the Indo-China peninsula and some islands of East Asia, the persistent armed conflicts in Central Asia that are engulfing Afghanistan and Tajikistan, trans-national drug trafficking, acts of terrorism, and the growing activities of the religious and nationalistic extremists are gaining ground, which evoke concern among the countries and nations in this part of the world. ###### Key issues of regional peace and security As compared with Europe, there is less probability of security in the Asia-Pacific region deteriorating seriously or that large-scale conflicts and confrontation will emerge. The Cold War did not affect Asia as seriously as Europe and did not create deep-seated and persistent differences among the regional countries and nations. In this sense, it can reasonably be said that the balance of power in the relationship among regional countries was not changed that seriously with the disappearance of one of the two superpowers. 13 ----- ###### There has been no drastic change in the balance of military power in the Asia-Pacific region and with the exception of South Korea and Japan foreign military involvement has not become a ###### necessity in Asia. Compared to other regions, the Asian continent was less affected by either the arms race or nuclear confrontation. ###### The Korean War and the wars in Vietnam and Afghanistan all flared due to outside interference; after WWII Asians have not engaged in wars with each other. But this does not in the least mean that the issue of guaran- teeing peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region is not considered important. An evidence of this is the fact that regional countries have been making numerous proposals and suggestions for creating a mecha- nism to regulate controversial issues among states by political means, similar to the Helsinki Final Document (1975) or the Paris Declara- tion (1990). The general principle by which the European collective secu- rity system was created is also important for the Asia-Pacific region. However, the special features of this region must be taken into account. ###### Peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region can be guaran- teed in many different ways. It can be done by monitoring the movements of hostile parties in those regions where armed conflicts could erupt and by restricting nuclear and chemical weapons within the region and/or creating zones and regions free of such weapons therein. Mutual military trust and confidence can be secured by reducing the number of troops and weapons through the mutual consent of nations; giving more transparency to military activities including large-scale military exercises and maneuvers; mutually re- stricting armaments; gradually restructuring the armed forces toward self-defense; making military policy and doctrine more open; and creating channels for mutual information flow. It is vitally important to promote the establishment of treaties and agreements of peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region that facilitate the creation of a mechanism which would settle disputes among nations by peaceful means. The establishment, with the in- volvement of the major countries, of regional organizations entrusted 14 ----- ###### with the task of resolving conflicts and disputes through political means must become a key instrument for guaranteeing peace and security and building up mutual trust. The maintenance of military equilibrium among states in or- der to guarantee peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region is also of paramount importance. This can be accomplished by conducting a policy of restricting either the unrestrained build-up or the total reduction of the armed forces of regional countries, and preventing sudden changes that may affect the balance. It is important to bear in mind that military and weapons build-ups in this part of the world are now proceeding without any limitation or control and outside the framework of international treaties and agreements. ###### On the assumption that the cessation of hostilities between the two major poles has ended the military involvement of the United States in the Asia-Pacific region, and that the domestic crisis in Russia has weakened the Russian armed forces, some newly-develop- ing countries are consistently working to build up their armed forces. Recent years have seen an increase in the export, import and trafficking of arms in the Asia-Pacific region. As compared with ###### Europe, the international situation in the region is fragmented and thus the task of restricting the arms race is not an easy task. In general, the immediate task of the major countries and influential international organizations is to launch a common policy aimed at restricting the proliferation of new weapons and military technology in the region. Measures could also be taken to restrict the arms ###### exports of some countries. Proceeding from this premise, it is extremely important to implement a UN General Assembly resolution "Trans- parency in armaments" (Register of Conventional Arms) enacted in 1991 through the initiative of Japan and the European Union. 15 ----- ###### Issues of regional peace and security and Mongolia • New circumstances Many centuries after the downfall of the Great Mongolian Empire, Mongolians have now, for the first time, become genuine masters of their state and country and the time has come that na- ###### tional independence and territorial integrity are no longer the target of threats from without. The times are past when the country was confronted with the probability of becoming entangled in the con- frontation between the two global hostile camps or in a possible armed conflict between the Soviet Union and China. However, the security of Mongolia has not been ensured reliably and no sure guarantees have been developed for safeguarding Mongolia against becoming a victim of wars and conflicts in the future. Although the nature of the relationships among the countries of the Asia-Pacific region has changed, a collective security system is still not in place and conflicts of various sorts continue to persist. Given this situation, Mongolia faces the vital need to conduct an independent policy that gives priority to its national interests in order to ensure its national independence and sovereignty, and enable it to help address development issues. An environment for complacency has not yet emerged, thus creating a new type of concern. Although at present there are no countries that can be dubbed Mongolia's enemy, its security has not yet been guaranteed to the full. New, unprecedented factors are emerging and there is no guarantee that the former threats will not re-emerge in new forms and shapes. The change in Mongolia's external security environment has made it imperative to alter the conception thereof, and, above all, to reconsider Mongolia's relationship with the two great neighbors and other countries and ways to guarantee security on its own. Apart from developing a balanced relationship with the two neighbors, Mongolia is striving to rely on a third force, which has become a key orientation in the country's foreign policy. With a view 16 ----- toward implementing this policy Mongolia concluded a "Treaty on friendly relations and cooperation", first with the Russian Federation in 1992 and then with the People's Republic of China in 1994. In addition, Mongolia considers it vitally important to develop active ###### cooperation with other influential countries in the Asia-Pacific re- gion in order to create a new national security environment. In fact, Mongolia is working to develop such a strategy which would not only meet the national interests of the country but also one which would be understood and accepted by its neighboring countries as well as ###### other nations in the Asia-Pacific region. The drastic changes in the environment surrounding Mongolia and the future development trend since the end of the Cold War make it imperative that Mongolia consider its future development and security issues within the framework of the Asia-Pacific region, including North-East Asia. This necessity rises in view of the need to consider the future development of a small country like Mongolia within the context of the region with similar development trends, geo-strategic interests and economies. One of the most pressing development issues confronting Mongolia is to determine correctly the position of the country in the geopolitical and geo-strategic environment which has emerged in North-East Asia as a result of the changes in international relations around the world. Mongolia needs to promote an energetic, friendly and mutually beneficial cooperation with Russia, China and with other countries of North-East Asia. Mongolia proceeds from the premise that the future of the country's security depends on how the country approaches these relationships. It is beyond Mongolia's capacity to prevent all potential threats by relying solely on its own resources, therefore, Mongolia is certain that it can guarantee its security in the ever-changing external envi- ronment only by taking an active part in international relations in North-East Asia within the context of political and economic coop- eration. The normalization of relations between Russia and China and the fact that neither of these countries is striving to exert dominant influence in Mongolia have provided more opportunities for other 17 ----- countries to build up their relationships, from a strategic point of view, with Mongolia. This has become one of the most important factors in the new security environment of Mongolia. Mongolia is appreciative of the assistance and support being rendered by the major Western powers to the democratization pro- cess in the country and to the development of its economy. We firmly believe that the support being rendered to Mongolia in con- ducting an independent, peace-loving, non-aligned policy in Asia designed to create trust in our international relationships will meet the common interests of these major nations as well as the countries in the Asia-Pacific region. It is becoming increasingly evident that these countries fully understand the reality that creating such a posi- tion for Mongolia will help create favorable conditions in the rela- tionship among themselves, as well. There are a number of regions in Asia and the Pacific where the balance of power must be maintained. Mongolia has successfully rid itself from being entangled in the confrontation between Russia and China and, in this sense, Mongolia must become an example to other countries lying in such regions. Although Mongolia is a small country, it has squarely refused to accept direct foreign military assistance, and it has solemnly stated that in times of peace it will not join any military bloc or alliance, station any foreign troops in its territory or allow their transit through its territory. Moreover, Mongolia has reduced its armed forces by several thousand men. Mongolia's security is not only dependent on the positive changes in the external environment but also, to a greater extent, on the transformation of the social and political mentality in the coun- try. Geographically, Mongolia is a land-locked country and thus strives to conduct a domestic policy which is compatible with the specific features of a small country and which takes into account the existing domestic resources as well as various forms of threat. Mongolia's notion of security is based on the idea of creating the necessary conditions for enabling the people of Mongolia to decide their destiny on their own, freely choose their path of social development and protect human rights, freedoms, and justice. We also understand that a relatively self-reliant development of the coun- 18 ----- try as an independent state with independent government policies and activities are important conditions for ensuring its security. It is believed that the perpetuation of the stagnant situation in the country's development, worsening of the living standards of the people and the predominance of instability in social consciousness pose much more serious threat to Mongolia today than any military threat. The economic crisis, the questionable quality of foodstuffs, price hikes, the absence of modern transport and communication links with the outside world, and the growing pollution of the envi- ronment make it imperative to pay more attention to the non-mili- tary elements of security. **• Relationships with Russia and China** From 1960 onwards, Mongolia became a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. This was connected, in some way, with the strategic importance of Mongolia's geographical location. Such a situation does not date back to the mid-20[th] century alone but history shows that the domination of Mongolia was one of the key factors for both Russia and China in establishing their influence in Asia. It is a reality that Mongolia is a land-locked country with a small population that exists in relative isolation with regard to the other Asian countries. Such an objective factor played into the hands of the policy and geo-strategic interests of the former Soviet Union, and it is no wonder that Mongolia stood firmly on the side of the former USSR during the years of Soviet-Chinese confrontation. In the 1960's, for the third time in the 20"' century, Mongolia allowed the stationing of Soviet troops on its territory and began to develop an all-round cooperation with the Soviet Union in the mili- tary sphere which clearly tipped the geo-straiegic advantage in favor of the former USSR. The stationing of troops in Mongolia provided leverage for the USSR from a military-strategic stand-point. In par- ticular, from the strategic-offensive point, Mongolia was the closest distance to the Chinese capital tor the deployment of Soviet offensive means. »9 ----- The Soviet military command was well aware that Mongolia provided easy access from the west, south and east to all strategically important regions of northern China. They regarded Mongolia as one of the key strongholds for the likely waging of a war and they consid- ered it extremely important to carry out military operations in the direction of regions with relatively sparse populations inhabited by the minorities of China. In view of this, China had an uneasy feeling about Mongolia, its neighbor with the 4,500 km common border, and time and again sought to make that known. From the Chinese strategic stand-point, China was also well aware that Mongolia, with its location providing a shield to its industrialized regions, could act as an important buffer zone from the "northern threat". As a result, for 30 years after 1960 Mongolia had to exist between the "Chinese threat", a sensitive issue for the Soviets, and the "Northern threat", a matter of concern for China. Changes in the Soviet-Chinese relations as well as the politi- cal and economic transformations in both the Russian Federation and China starting in the 1990's created a brand new environment and factors affecting the security of Mongolia. The joint Soviet-Chinese statement issued after their summit meeting in May 1989, as well as the subsequent bilateral meetings, treaties and agreements, rendered null and void the "mission" of the Soviet Union to "protect" Mongolia from China. Moreover, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China agreed not to use or threaten to use force against each other, or use the territory, water and air space of a third country for this purpose. This gave a powerful impetus to altering the security environment of Mongolia. The above agreement became a reality after the total Soviet military pull-out from Mongolia was completed in 1992. Mongolia's policy for relating to its two neighbors is en- shrined in the "Concept of Mongolia's Foreign Policy" adopted by the State Great Rural of Mongolia (parliament) in 1994. One of the key priorities in this concept is to develop friendly relations with both the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. That is, 20 ----- Mongolia strives to promote balanced and good-neighborly relations with these two countries without adopting the line of either country. Unless Mongolia's national interests are affected, the country shall invariably adhere to the position of non-interference in any argument arising between these two countries. Mongolia's policy is that, in peace time, it will not station any foreign troops on its territory, allow them to transit its territory, or join any military alliance. This is a striking manifestation of the importance Mongolia attaches to maintaining balanced and friendly relations with its two major neighbors. The Government of Mongolia attaches great importance to the requirement that Russia and China limit, for a definite period of time, military activities on the territory in the proximity of the re- gions neighboring Mongolia and substantiate this through treaties and agreements at the level of the governments of the three coun- tries. Mongolia has declared its territory a nuclear-weapons free zone. With an eye toward expanding the zone, the public of Mongolia calls on their neighboring countries to declare their territories as nuclear-free and their border areas as demilitarized zones. This is certainly in the security interests of Mongolia, but, may be in the interests of both Russia and China, as well. In addition, Mongolia's security could be ensured by mutual agreement between Russia and China not to turn Mongolia into a theater of hostile operations, by Mongolia to refrain from creating conditions which would lead Mongolia to such a state of affairs, and by the conclusion of a tripartite treaty or agreement to this effect. So far there is no controversial issue between Mongolia and China which could spark military conflict between the two countries. The People's Republic of China has no legal basis to lay any kind of political or territorial claim on Mongolia. This is because all contro- versial issues between the two countries were resolved long ago at the highest level and ratified by the highest state legislatures of Mongolia and China. However, there is no guarantee that some of the contra- dictions existing in China's relations with other countries as well as 21 ----- the future development of internal social, political and ethnic contro- versies will not lead to a situation similar to that in the former Soviet Union. This is something which is a cause for concern of Mongolians who have been neighbors with China for a long time. In recent years the Russian Federation has been working hard to precipitate military cooperation among the CIS countries and to develop military partnerships with China and other countries in Asia. The Russian Federation, on the basis of mutual understanding with other neighboring countries, has been able, in principle, to resolve the issue of guaranteeing the security of its southern borders. By doing so, Russia has resorted to its past experience in collaborating with the former socialist countries, including Mongolia, and the fact that it has stationed its troops in some CIS countries draws due attention. Given the radical change in the international situation, in- cluding the Asia-Pacific region, the absence of the former bi-polar balance of power and the destruction of the traditional strategic equilibrium in the region requires a new assessment of events and factors which initially were viewed as ensuring peace and stability. Under such circumstances, it is natural that Mongolia seeks to safe- guard its military security through developing relations, in compli- ance with the norms and standards of a civilized world, not only with Russia and China but with other nations through the United Nations and other international organizations. The Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China respect Mongolia's policy of guaranteeing its security through a non- aligned policy, within a framework of international cooperation and with the involvement of other influential countries. Furthermore, Mongolia is interested in further promoting trilateral Mongolia- Russia-China relationships, including the possibility of its becoming a bridge of cooperation between the two neighbors. 22 ----- ###### CHAPTER TWO ENSURANCE OF NATIONAL SECURITY The national interests of Mongolia The substance of national security; ways and means of ensuring it The system of ensuring national security ----- **_ENSURANCE OF NATIONAL_** **_SECURITY_** ###### The national interests of Mongolia The State policy of Mongolia aimed at embarking upon the path to democracy and social reforms, developing market economy ###### relations, building a democratic state system, safeguarding human rights, reviving and maintaining national uniqueness, and protecting Nature is being implemented in conformity with the supreme objec- tive of ensuring national security. The 1990s saw drastic changes in the configuration of power in the world and the Asia-Pacific region, as well as the dismantle- ment of the political and economic community and common defense system of socialist countries, all of which have been attributed to the emergence of the imperative need and immediate objective to ap- proach multi-faceted issues of national security from a totally new perspective and tackle them by means of own resources and indepen- dent policy. In response to the above situation, the complex goal of ensuring national security and making it incumbent on the people of Mongolia was brought up to the level of an official concept with the adoption thereof by the State Great Rural of Mongolia in 1994. Aside from serving the interests of the State and the people on a long-term basis and maintaining their preeminence and hereditary qualities regardless of circumstances imposed by a particular period ###### and/or structural changes of socio-political systems, the principal ideas of the Concept of National Security of Mongolia shall also be attuned and updated as our country goes along its course of develop- ment. An excerpt from the concept reads, "The national security of Mongolia represents the status when favorable external and internal conditions are secured to ensure the vital national interests of 25 ----- Mongolia". Based upon this premise, the vital national interests of the Mongolian people that have been esteemed from generation to generation were officially defined and declared as such, thus making them the object of special care and protection on the part of the State and the people. The vital national interests comprise the following: -the existence of the Mongolian people and their civilization; -Mongolia's independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the inviolability of State frontiers; -relative economic independence; -sustainable ecological development; -national unity. ###### The substance of national security; ways and means of ensuring it As stipulated in the Concept of National Security of Mongolia, the national security consists of the following main components: 1. security of the existence of Mongolia 2. security of the social order and state system 3. security of citizens' rights and freedoms 4. economic security 5. scientific and technological security 6. security of information 7. security of Mongolian civilization 8. security of the population and its gene pool 9. ecological security. ###### Tke security of iheejostence^of Mongolia means the ensurance of its independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the inviola- bility of state frontiers of Mongolia; the security:.of the social order and state system means the ensurance of the state and socio-eco- nomic structure, fundamental principles of State activities, as well as human rights and freedoms as provided for in the Constitution of Mongolia; the^security of the citizens'jightsand Jisedoins means that conditions are ensured for individuals to fully devote their physi- 26 ----- cal and intellectual potential to their own benefit, to the interests of the country and the people, and for Mongolia to carry out its inter- national obligations with respect to human rights; economic security means building an economic structure which has the potential for effective economic reproduction through the use of internal resources, for meeting the basic needs of the people and strengthening the country's independence, and in cases of need to sustain the country for a definite period of time; scientific and technological security means the ensurance of conditions for the use of technologies, infor- mation and research for the purpose of the country's development adapted to its ecological conditions, for enhancing the national sci- entific potential and intellectual competitiveness; information secu- rity means that conditions are ensured for the Government to assess objectively the country's actual internal and external situation and make correct decisions, for government organs and the people to have the necessary information to exercise the powers and rights provided for them in the Constitution and for the dissemination abroad of information about Mongolia; security of the Mongolian ###### civilization means that conditions are ensured for the preservation of the national language, history, culture, customs and traditions that constitute the basis for the existence and development of the Mongo- lian nation and its statehood, and conditions for the eternal existence of the Mongolian people; the security of theL population and its gene ###### pool means that conditions are ensured for the maintenance and protection of the health and gene pool of the Mongolian population and its sustained growth; and ecological security means that condi- tions are ensured for the prevention of a negative impact on the human environment and economy due to ecological and climatic changes, and of the irrational use and insufficient protection of natu- ral resources. ###### Factors affecting the national security are divided into inter- nal and external by their origins, and into immediate, temporary, long-term, and permanent by their duration. Of these, the factors that may have a negative impact on national security are divided into objective and subjective by their character, and into real and possible by the probability of danger they might cause. The policy of ensuring and strengthening the national security seeks to identify and eliminate any threat at the "probable" stage of 27 ----- occurrence, and to reduce or prevent objective threats by the timely elimination of subjective ones. Realization that the national security of Mongolia is part of international security, and is directly dependent on the latter, is a new and different concept that contrasts sharply with the old belief that the future of the country's development was contingent upon the socialist system's stable existence and the hegemony of communist ideology. In view of the above, the national security, in terms of political spatial security, is divided into global, regional and subre- gional. Assuming that there may also be internal factors affecting national security, they are spatially divided into national, regional, aimag, the capital, and soum levels. According to the Concept of National Security of Mongolia, the ideological basis of the policy ensuring national security is na- tional patriotism. Mongolia ensures its national security by social, political, organizational, economic, diplomatic, military, intelligence and legal means unilaterally or through the development of interna- tional cooperation. State policy as well as actions taken by the State, its agencies and functionaries and its citizens aimed at creating all-round guaran- tees of protecting and strengthening Mongolia's vital national inter- ests are the main ways of ensuring national security. Those measures are both preventive and creative. Mongolia attaches importance to developing its international competitiveness in the economic, cul- tural, scientific and technological and educational fields. The main means of ensuring national security consists of taking measures designed to forecast and forestall undesirable trends and events through the evaluation and assessment of reliable infor- mation. The main guarantors of national security are the people of Mongolia and the Mongolian State. Correct policies on the part of the State and the Government, a solidly grounded political and electoral system, and consensus among 28 ----- its political forces are essential conditions for ensuring the national security of Mongolia in the present transition period. International guarantees of national security consist of politi- cal, legal, and moral-psychological components. Mongolia is striving to secure and strengthen its international guarantees through a com- bination of unilateral, bilateral and multilateral measures. The mili- tary-political security guarantees of Mongolia can be safeguarded through its participation in the establishment of a collective security system in the region and the world. The legal guarantees of national security can be ensured by enhancing Mongolia's position in the international community, by pursuing an open, balanced, and active foreign policy, and by upholding universally accepted principles of contemporary international law, its moral-psychological elements are secured through the promotion of democracy, protection of human rights, and following the standards of the world's civilized countries. **The system of ensuring national security** The duty of ensuring national security is incumbent on the State Great Hural, the President of Mongolia, the Government, the National Security Council, central and local law enforcement and State administrative agencies. **_Members of the National Security Council_** **N.Bagabandi** **R.GoBctaigdorj** **M.EBkhsatUun** **_President of Mongolia_** **_Chairman of the State_** **_Prime Minister of_** **_Great Hural of Mongolia_** **_Mongolia_** **29** ----- The State Great Hural of Mongolia is authorized to consider at its own initiative any issue pertaining to the domestic and foreign policies of the country. With this power, it defines the main direction and measures for ensuring national security, particularly the ways of ensuring the national security of Mongolia through political and diplomatic means; determines the structure, composition, and pow- ers of the National Security Council; defines the State borders and determines the legal basis of the system, structure and activities of local self-governing and administrative bodies, all of which have a direct impact on national security; institutes higher military ranks; issues acts of amnesty; at the suggestion of the Government, ratifies and renounces international agreements to which Mongolia is a Party; establishes and severs diplomatic relations with foreign States; holds national referendums; declares a state of war with a foreign country in case the sovereignty and independence of the State are threatened by armed actions on the part of a foreign power, and abates it; declares a state of emergency or a state of war and approves or nullifies the President's decree to that effect. These powers vested in the State Great Hural combine to make it the principal body in ensuring the national security of Mongolia. The President of Mongolia is the Head of the National Secu- rity Council and the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces as provided for in the Constitution of Mongolia. The President exercises the power to request information about national security matters from relevant organizations; initiate the submission of necessary is- sues to the National Security Council; issue directives and instruc- tions to relevant organizations and officials; supervise implementa- tion of the National Security Council's recommendations; declare general or partial conscription; declare a state of emergency or a state of war and order the deployment of armed forces when extraordinary circumstances affecting the national security arise. ###### The Government of Mongolia is the highest executive body of the State, with full powers to strengthen the country's defense capa- bilities and to ensure its national security. It is tasked with the conduct of the State's foreign policy; implementing State legislation on national security; developing and executing policy on the economy, science and technology, the State budget, credit and fiscal plans; ###### protecting the environment; strengthening the armed forces; protect - 30 ----- ing human rights and freedoms; enforcing public order; preventing crime; and concluding, implementing, and abrogating international treaties to which Mongolia is a Party with the consent of the State Great Hural. The legislative, executive, judicial and local self-governing bodies are obligated to implement, within their competence, the tenets of the Concept of National Security of Mongolia, as strengthened by the Constitution, legislation and other relevant legal acts. Political and non-governmental organizations, as well as citi- zens, shall strictly observe the legislation on ensuring national secu- ###### rity and the Concept of National Security of Mongolia and shall actively participate in the realization thereof. ###### The National Security Council of Mongolia is charged with the coordination of the strategies and tactics of implementing the Concept of National Security of Mongolia with due regard to existing circumstances. It also monitors the state of safeguarding national security and annually informs the State Great Hural thereon. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Justice and the State Security Agency of Mongolia are charged with carrying out those tasks that play main role in the system of ensuring national security. It is noteworthy that State and government agencies, as well as political parties, are of the same or close opinion on, and are pursuing a consensus on, issues pertaining to ensuring the national security of Mongolia. They are striving to mend their failure to make national security issues aft object of independent research, to conduct research at the State policy level, and to rid themselves of the incli- nation to consider national security only in the military-war context and thereby limit them to the business of the military. ###### The development, subsequent adoption and observance of the Concept of National Security contributed to the revival of traditions of Mongolian statehood and the hereditary qualities of its State poli- ###### cies; set the main directions of State policies and activities consistent with the aspirations of the Mongolian people and the ensurance of the country's independence and vital national interests; created con- 31 ----- ###### dittons for facilitating a common understanding, desire, and con- sciousness of issues relevant to the national security within the coun- try, the political parties and the people; and offered the opportunity to consolidate and direct the intellectual potential and efforts of Mongolia's every citizen, without discrimination on the basis of eth- nic origin, opinion and religion, to the maintenance of peace in the country and to the development and prosperity thereof. 32 ----- ###### CHAPTER THREE BASIC ISSUES OF DEFENSE POLICY On the military traditions of Mongolian statehood Legal basis Military doctrine Defense system Foreign relations and international cooperation Defense budget ----- **_BASIC ISSUES OF DEFENSE POLICY_** ###### One of the main measures for implementing the Concept of National Security is the State defense policy. In line with the major changes in the state, social, and economic systems, the defense policy of Mongolia has taken on a new content by virtue of its conformity to the new conditions of democracy, market economy ###### and international relations brought about since the 1990's and the new emphasis on the engaged participation and activity of all the people of Mongolia. The creation of a unified political, economic, social, legal, and military system to ensure the defense of the country; the mod- ernization of the armed forces and other troops aimed at making them professionally-oriented, compact and efficient; the strengthen- ing of the border troops; and the prioritization of political and diplomatic means in the defense policy of the country constitute the fundamentals of the defense policy of Mongolia reflected in the Action Program of the Government of Mongolia for the years 1996- 2000. The Mongolian people have many centuries of rich tradition concerning the State defense policy and activities which may explain our willingness, even during the present period of democracy and reforms, to look back at our historical experience and heritage. ###### On the military traditions of Mongolian statehood History bears testimony that the Mongolian people have forged and passed on their own military art for defending their cherished land and nation over the long historical development of the State. The ancient Xiongnu state, which emerged some 2000 years 35 ----- ago in the territory of Mongolia, united the armies of many tribes, instituted procedures for general conscription, and introduced the decimal military unit system thereby forming the State army. Due to its general command and absolute discipline, the army of the Xiongnu state became famous for its superb combat abilities throughout Asia and Europe. ###### The historical development of the Mongols' military art reached its apex during the formation of the military establishment in the unified Mongolian State founded by Chinggis Khan. The great suc- cesses in the many war campaigns and battles waged by Chinggis Khan can be credited to his creation of unified system of state, military, and social establishments which ingeniously coupled the military legacy of the Central Asian tribes with the psychology and way of living of the nomadic Mongols. During that period, in order to maintain the independence of the State, the entire populace of the Mongolian state were fully armored warriors and based their military establishment on powerful cavalry which strictly observed the State law and decrees, cherished justice, had an iron discipline and preferred quality over quantity. Although the essence of the Mongolian way of defending the country by military means dwindled in some respects during the historically complicated period of the Manchu yoke, its basic themes and main principles managed to stay intact in numerous manuscripts left behind by our ancestors and manifested themselves in the mili- tary arts of other countries. ###### The commencement of the national independence movement in 1911 marked a new era of development for the military establish- ment of Mongolia. It was due to the changes in the structure and organization of the Mongolian military forces which took place at this time that the "Huree troops" could be established. They laid the foundation for a regular army modeled after the standards of more advanced countries, in addition to the historically traditional local military forces. In the subsequent 80 odd years, the development of ###### the defense system of Mongolia was based on concepts of Russian and Soviet military science. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that through- ###### out this period of historical development the Mongolian people ap- proached military affairs from their own stance and perspective, as 36 ----- well, and made decisions relevant to the basic issues of the country's defense system by taking into account the historically traditional Mongolian military arts, foreign and domestic military-political situ- ations, the state of the country's economy, and the peculiarities of its climate. During 1978-1990, the defense system of Mongolia passed through a very active and dynamic stage of development. The basis of the military arts in Mongolia, a part of the common defense system of socialist countries, rested on the concept that the regular army would carry out military operations in specific operational directions as a component of the Soviet armed forces, and, in other directions, ensure the deployment of other allied forces through the use of its border troops and regular army units assigned to border protection. All the various means of forming and developing the defense system of Mongolia were directed at improving and bringing the structure, organization, armament, training, and number of person- nel in the armed forces up to the level where they would be capable of performing duties jointly with the armed forces of the former Soviet Union. At that time, the Mongolian armed forces consisted of the Mongolian People's Army and the well-trained border troops. The Mongolian People's Army comprised one Combined Army which had four motor rifle divisions and service branch units; air defense ###### troops; air force; civil defense troops and a number of independent units assigned for border protection. The Mongolian armed forces came to be regarded as a modern army with relatively high supply and combat capabilities equipped with the same armament and equip- ment as the Soviet army. Such tasks as the transformation of the country's economy to the situation imposed by marital law, prepara- tion of the populace for military and civil defense activities, and the formation of mobilization reserves were all implemented at the re- quired level. The need for Mongolia to approach the matter of ensuring its national security from an independent viewpoint and stance and to resolve, based upon its own concept, matters pertinent to the defense of the country, has risen due to the changes in the relationship which took place between countries in the 1990s, the reform of the 37 ----- social order, and the dismantling of the common defense system of socialist countries, among others. The new defense policy of Mongolia, which takes into ac- count the historical heritage of the military establishment, the expe- riences of other countries, and the present situation and trend of future development of our country, is aimed at creating a legal basis for national defense, clarifying and renewing the concept of military doctrine, forming an integrated new defense system, developing for- eign relations and international cooperation that encourage and fos- ter confidence-building among countries, making the defense budget efficient, and strengthening civil-military relations. ###### Legal basis The state defense policy of Mongolia is being implemented commensurately with the changes in, and the framing of, legal acts which regulate social relations pertaining to the realization of de- fense activities. This illustrates the commitment of the Mongolian people to the principle of regulating defense activities in a civil and democratic society only by law. Before 1993, there were practically no legislative or legal acts regulating, in an integrated manner, relations concerning the defense policy and activities of Mongolia. Under the socialist state and gov- ernment, these relations were regulated through decrees issued by the Political Bureau of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party and the Council of Ministers. This procedure became defunct in the 1990s and their decrees could no longer be enforced. Under the circumstances, it was imperative that a legal basis for the state de- fense policy and activities be newly framed and laid out. A lot has been accomplished in this regard in the past few years. The Constitution of Mongolia is exemplary in this respect in that it declares, for the first time, that it is the duty of the State to secure the country's independence, that Mongolia shall have armed forces for self-defense, that the structure and organization of the armed forces and rules of military service shall be determined by law, and that it is the duty of the citizens of Mongolia to defend the 38 ----- motherland and serve in the army. By stipulating that the President of Mongolia shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and charging the Government with the strengthening of the country's defense capabilities, the Constitution thereby laid a legal basis for the democratic principle that command of the army is confined to the State and the Government elected by the people of the Mongolia, and not to a specific political party. Quite a few provisions on defense activities and the legal status of servicemen appear in the Law on the State Great Hural, the Law on the President of Mongolia, the Law on the Government of Mongolia and other legislation. Adoption of the law on the military duties of citizens of Mongolia and on the legal status of servicemen contributed to the creation of legal basis for defense policy. The State Great Hural adopted the Law on the Defense of Mongolia in 1993 in order to facilitate establishment of an integrated defense system in Mongolia, determine the structure, organization, and functions of the armed forces, and regulate relations rising from implementation of the state defense policy. The Law on the Border, the Law on Civil Defense, and the Law on State of Emergency were framed inn accordaancce with the Law on the Defense of Mongolia. At this time, the Law on a State of War with a Foreign Country, the Law on a State of War, the Law on the Stationing and Passaage of Foreign Troops, and the Law on Mobilization are being prepared for adoption. The significance of the Law on Defense resides in its legiti- mizing Mongolia's need to have an integrated defense system and armed forces for self-defense, stipulating that activities of the armed forces shall be governed only by the State and the legislative and executive bodies, and relevant central and local State administrative agencies, economic entities, citizens, and the armed forces to par- ticipate actively in the nation's defense. According to the Law on the Defense of Mongolia, the de- fense and armed forces' activities shall be under State and civilian control. Based on scientific evaluation of the present situation and the prospects for future development of the armed forces, command is divided into general and professional military as is done in ad- 39 ----- vanced countries with strong civil and democratic institutions. Thus, the Ministry of Defense (MOD), which is a central State administra- tive agency, is responsible for implementing and regulating, in an integrative manner, the state defense policy and activities at the national level while the General Staff of the Armed Forces (GSAF) is the central body of the professional military command. The MOD has assumed responsibility for implementing state defense policy at the national level, managing and regulating activities and supply of the armed forces and the border troops, and creating conditions for facilitating civilian control over their activities. The Law on the Defense has established a legal basis for appointing a civilian politi- cian and person to the post of Defense Minister and a professional military person to head the GSAF. According to the Law on the Defense of Mongolia, the de- fense of Mongolia forms part of the activities to ensure the national security through complex political, economic, social, legal and mili- tary measures to defend the people, independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Mongolia against foreign armed incursion and aggression. Activities directed toward ensuring the inviolability of the state frontiers of Mongolia and defending its population against natural disasters and weapons of mass destruction are a component of the state defense system. In other words, the safeguarding of state frontiers and civilian defense are included in the notion of "defense". Aside from po- litico-diplomatic and military means, the defense activities of the country will also be carried out through systematic civilian activities in support of the armed forces. The legal basis for using the armed ###### forces to ensure the inviolability of state frontiers and to defend against natural "disasters and other unforeseen dangers was estab- lished in this law. Lately, in Mongolian military affairs, views regarding the ra- tionale for the use of armed forces and the duties and functions thereof have assumed a slightly different turn. This is attributed to the view that the armed forces is a military organization obliged to undertake armed struggle against foreign enemies, as well as a State instrument employed to safeguard the State and the people in case of natural disasters and other extraordinary circumstances. 40 ----- For the first time, the structure, composition, organization, and basic functions of the armed forces are set forth in the Law on the Defense of Mongolia. As a result, the resolution of issues has become much easier. For any given issue there are organizations and individuals responsible for its resolution. The country's defense ac- tivities are now being undertaken in a similar efficient manner, becauase the powers of the State Great Hural, the President, the Government, the Defense Minister, and the MOD of Mongolia are fully defined, as are the duties of central and local State administra- tive agencies, business enterprises, citizens, and the armed forces with regard to the defense of the country. The adoption of the Law on the Defense of Mongolia ac- complished the main task of establishing a legal basis for defense activities. As a result, practical activities were undertaken to establish the new defense system within the framework of undertakings aimed at strengthening the new state system. In addition, conditions were created for building up the country's defense capabilities com- mensurate .with its resources and based on the participation of the entire nation. The asseveration hereof by law is politically significant since it is consistent with the peaceful and non-aligned foreign policy of Mongolia in peacetime and serves to affirm a self-defense orien- tation of our country's defense activities to other countries. By virtue of which, it also meets the domestic political objective to promote patriotism of the citizens and maintain the national unity of the country. At the current stage of Mongolia's social development, one of the important issues related to the institution of the legal basis of its defense policy is the determination and definition in law of citizens' military duties and the legal status of servicemen. A first step forward was made with the adoption of the Law on the Military Duties of the Citizens of Mongolia and the Legal Status of Servicemen in 1992 which addressed the main issues pertaining to these matters. With the passage of time, however, some of the provisions in the law became outdated and had to be changed. Therefore, the rules for military service were changed in 1997 and a legal basis was established for serving on active military duty as soldiers and ser- geants on a voluntary and/or contractual basis and/or selecting an 41 ----- alternate form of military service. The following topical issues are pending re-definition and clarification : the future course of develop- ment and the norms and standards to be followed in a civilized world: the content of servicemen's social and legal protection and guarantees of the realization thereof; servicemen's political rights and rights to work, to receive honoraria, to be provided with mate- riel, to rest, to their health protected, to education, to receive pen- sions, to military rank, to enter and leave military service; the social welfare of servicemen's family members; the duties of servicemen; and the privileges and restrictions of servicemen's rights under the circumstances that arise while they perform their duties. Another important element in establishing a legal basis for the country's defense policy is the regulation of legislative activities at the national level so that all legal acts are in harmony with the national defense interests. These include the laws on land, labor, pensions and benefits, foreign investment, and other legislation aimed at regulating social relations and forming a basis for the economic system. ###### Military doctrine In 1994, the State Great Hural adopted a document entitled ###### " Fundamentals of the Military Doctrine of Mongolia" which waas of great significance. It formulated the main directions of foreign and domestic policies in relation to a legal basis for implementing military reforms and ensuring military security. By abandoning the military policy of being part of the community of socialist countries and its obligations to defend its eastern frontiers by military means, the new military doctrine of Mongolia declared that priority shall be given to political and diplomatic means in ensuring the security of the country. The document stipulated that, "Mongolia shall develop all- round, friendly relations and cooperation with the countries of the world, particularly with neighboring states, and work to bring about military trust, refrain from and/or prevent any activity that may adversely affect its vital national interests, and thereby eliminate grounds for and causes of external military threat". This is a totally 42 ----- new perspective on the principle of ensuring the national security of Mongolia. The document also states, "Although prospects for mutual understanding, trust and partnership have come to prevail in interna- tional relations with the end of the Cold War, the danger of war and armed conflicts has not been fully eliminated and a collective secu- rity system has not yet been formed in the world in general, and the Asia-Pacific region in particular". This view contributes to an under- standing of the reasons for framing the military doctrine of Mongolia and its adoption. Indeed, there still exist factors that may affect normal relationships between countries in the Asia-Pacific region and stimulate instability between them. The emergence of huge dif- ferences in the development of the armed forces in some countries, the continuation of armed conflicts here and there, the uncontrolled population growth and militarization of the state in many countries, and the lack of an efficient mechanism for regulating and settling disputes between countries in the region constitute some of these factors. At first glance, these factors do not pose a direct threat to the security of Mongolia. However, there are many cases in history where a loss of regional stability and, in particular, conflicts between neighboring countries and their domestic disorders had a strong impact on the fate of the Mongolian people and, in some cases, led to tragic consequences. The basic contents of the Military Doctrine of Mongolia are defined as follows: "In pursuing its peace-loving policy of creating favorable external conditions for ensuring national security and pre- venting any threat of war and aggression in conformity with univer- sally recognized principles of international law, Mongolia shall: - not view the use of force, or the threat of its use as means of settling any dispute and shall not recognize the results of such use of force or aggression; - not be the first to use its armed forces against another country under any circumstances and pose no military threat to oth- ers; 43 ----- - not participate in wars and conflicts unless it falls victim to foreign aggression. It shall fulfill its UN Charter obligations to support UN activities by way of dispatching observers and/ or by offering its good offices, mediation and conciliatory services; - not be part of any military alliance unless the independence and sovereignty of Mongolia is directly threatened or there is a clear and present danger of such a threat; - strictly adhere to the policy of not allowing foreign troops to enter, be stationed in or pass through its territory in the absence of relevant Mongolian legislation. An aspiration to ensure the country's military security by stabilizing the international situation in the Asia-Pacific region is clearly seen in this military doctrine. This purports to exhibit Mongolia's strict adherence to the policy of putting an end to the arms race in the region, setting an upper limit for the growth of armed forces in regional countries, halting the establishment of military bases in another countries, and gradually eliminating existing ones. It should be noted that the Mongolian people are openly expressing their concern over the sale of modern, high-tech weapons to some countries of the Asian-Pacific region by the great powers. In ###### most of the countries purchasing the weaponsthere are unstable for- eign annd domestic situations. This raises the possibility that these countries are building up their military capability so they can settle disputes through the employment of purchased weapons and equip- ment. In the military doctrine, the basic issues of Mongolia's mili- tary strategy are defined in conformity with the new circumstances. Mongolia considers nuclear war a wretched thing that may lead humanity to catastrophe. Hence, Mongolia declared its terri- tory a nuclear-weapons-free zone and is determined to ensure this status through bilateral and multilateral guarantee.^ and to actively participate in policies and activities aimed at banning nuclear testing and reinforcing the nuclear non-proliferation regime 44 ----- While eschewing conventional wars and conflicts as a means of settling disputes between countries, Mongolia does not exclude the possibility of such wars and conflicts emerging under certain conditions and even engaging in them in order to defend itself. In such cases, the military doctrine provides, "Any country that threat- ens with or undertakes armed aggression against the independence and sovereignty of Mongolia, and any accomplice to such aggres- sion, shall be regarded as its enemy. Mongolia shall wage an armed struggle and just war to defend itself against foreign armed incursion and aggression". Under the military doctrine, the following circumstances are considered as aggression against Mongolia: -intrusion into Mongolian territory of the armed forces of any other country; -armed attack on Mongolia from beyond its border; -attack and/or assault upon Mongolian armed forces and other troops, their formations and other units; -violation of relevant Mongolian legislation by foreign troops during their stay in or transit through its territory; -use by a foreign country of the land leased to it under Mon- golian laws, for a short or a long term, for armed aggression against other countries; -instigation of disorders, looting, subversive and terrorist ac- tivities perpetrated by specially trained and armed people in- filtrated into Mongolian territory from another country. In accordance with the above and other provisions of the military doctrine, as well as the Constitution, Mongolia is developing its self-defense Armed Forces. The purpose, functions, principles, structure, and organization of the armed forces, and the rules for service therein, are determined by Mongolian law. The military doctrine of Mongolia stipulates that the armed forces, in performing their duties, shall make use of the support of the entire nation in defense .luiviiics and charges the Armed Forces with the formation of mobilization reserves consisting of reservists. 45 ----- The basic principles of using the armed forces in war and armed struggle are defined in the military doctrine of Mongolia. Taking into account the impossibility of defending all of its territory evenly, Mongolian strategies and taactics are being guided by the notion of having its armed forces prepare for limited local armed conflicts. These include attempts to seize parts of Mongoliaa's terri- tory and armed incursions on the state border. In case a large regional conflict engulfs all or part of the country's territory and the threat of becoming involved in it is evi- dent, Mongolia reserves the right to enlist the support and assistance of other countries and international bodies that respect its indepen- dence and its state and social system. In its military doctrine, Mongolia maintains that it shall pur- sue the firm policy of preventing any internal public disorder or armed conflict that would undermine the state and social order established by the Constitution. Although this does not directly sug- gest the use of military means for internal purposes, there are provi- sions in the Constitution aimed at regulating relations related to the use of the armed forces in case a state of emergency or a state of war is declared because of internal disorder and/or conflict. One of the salient features of Mongolia's heritage is that the Mongolian army was both a military means of the state and a basis of society. Up to this day, the Mongolian army's formation is based on the principle of universal military service. As a consequence, officers, non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and soldiers who were ordinary citizens constitute the prevailing majority of personnel, thus enabling them to advocate the interests of the entire nation. Apart from this, the military doctrine clearly states that the army shall not be influenced by, or be part of the activities of any political party or coalition, which totally conforms to the democratic change in Mongolia and to the notion of army reforms. The military doctrine of Mongolia is of a peace-loving and self-defense nature and, provided that there still exist military means to resolve disputes in the world in general arid in the Asia-Pacific region in particular, it is legitimate to be concerned about the ensurance of military security for all countries including small countries like 46 ----- Mongolia that are enjoying their independence and are striving not to decide on their future following somebody else's orders. The fact that Mongolia set its defense objectives on its own, and framed its military doctrine in accordance with the post-Cold War international situation, can be attributed to the needs imposed by the state and social changes that took place in the early 1990s. As the country's social development continues, there will be an urgent need to adjust our military doctrine to conform to new situations and to the ever-higher standards of the world. The primary ways in which Mongolia's military doctrine shall to counter possible threats against Mongolia include to gradually making the armed forces professionally-oriented, and preparing for armed struggle of a self-defense nature that comforms with the trend of development of the world's military thought, present-day de- mands for military science, and a policy of military reforms. Since Mongolia has given priority to political and diplomatic means in its defense policy, the military doctrine should constantly be re-defined to conform to the strategic and tactical issues of for- eign policy while, at the same time, remaining distinct from them and conformity with the spirit of the times. ###### Defense system Formation of a new state defense system is one of the prin- cipal issues of the defense policy of Mongolia. Its main purpose is to make the defense system of Mongolia a political, economic, social, military, and legal conglomeration based upon the support of the population and promoting of the principle of territorial defense. It conforms to the necessity to adhere to the principle of total defense on the part of our country with its scarce population and vast terri- tory. The defense system of Mongolia shall be an inseparable com- ponent of the unified system of ensuring national security and its activities shall be safeguarded by a combined, national-level planning of complex political, economic, social, legal, and military measures 47 ----- aimed at ensuring the country's preparedness for the defense of its independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity against outside armed incursion and aggression, and by a corresponding organiza- tion and implementation thereof by the State. The integral defense system of the country shall consist of the Armed Forces of Mongolia and primary subsystems that direct defense policies and activities, train and prepare the population for military action, regulate the economy in correspondence with the defense interests, and study the territory of Mongolia from the view- point of its strategic defense. With the President of Mongolia designed in the new Consti- tution as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, Mongolian ###### statehood's heritage of commanding the military was revived and under... the policy that only the State will implement activities di- rected at defending the country. Based upon this above activities are being undertaken to define the respective powers and functions of the MOD and the GSAF, which are the bodies of state authority at all levels as well as the central agencies for implementing defense policy and military command, and to further refine their structures ###### and the theoretical and practical justifications of their activities according to modern military science. Within the framework of these activities, a program of struc- tural changes in the strategy and organization of the MOD's activities is being implemented. Included are such items as the planning of defense strategies, policy guidance, the management and regulation of state administration, monitoring of policy implementation, and the evaluation of results. As a result, the MOD has been re-structured to become a policy ministry which executes Government defense policy, establishes priorities for defense activities, programs, objec- tives, and mission and administers civilian control over the armed forces. ###### The priorities established by the MOD of Mongolia are: 1. To boost the efficiency of the MOD, a central state ad- ministrative body, in planning defense strategies, providing policy guidances, conceivig programs, regulating and monitoring policy imple- 48 ----- mentation, and evaluating results; 2. To create a legal basis for an integral defense system that is consistent with market economy relations; 3. To bring accord into the activities of central and local State administrative agencies and economic entities with the security and defense interests of the country and create the legal basis for its regulation by the State; 4. To reform the structure and organization of the armed forces and to establish military units capable of executing combat and special tasks with their peacetime structure and staff; 5. To strengthen border defense by instituting a professional border guard service. The supreme objective of the MOD is, "To make the Armed ###### Forces and Border troops professionally-oriented and capable, and, through the establishment of an integral political, economic, social, military, and legal defense system, to reliably safeguard the country's ###### independence and territorial integrity" The rationale for training the population for military affairs rests in keeping both male citizens who reach military service age and reservists physically, psychologically, and militarily well-prepared and organized to defend their country. Mongolians have a rich heri- tage of military training of the population and, under the present circumstances, it is important militarily, economically and socially. A relatively independent economy capable of sustaining the country in any severe situation and of supplying the armed forces with everything necessary constitutes the material foundation of the integrated defense system. It is therefore vital that the economy be developed and that its priority objectives be coordinated with defense interests. Currently, activities are being undertaken to support the day-to-day activities of the armed forces, to rationally resolve issues pertaining to the purchase of weapons and equipment, and to create a materiel resource that will meet the country's defense needs for a period of time. 49 ----- One of the main tasks leading to the formation of an inte- grated defense system is to study the territory and directions that may have the most exposure to war from the viewpoint of their defensive importance, taking into account the specifics of Mongolia's nature, climate, economic capacity and location of resources; taking appropriate measures, where possible, to that effect; and vigorously developing roads, telecommunications networks, and materiel re- sources to support them. These activities shall be conducted in close coordination with the policy of developing the country's economy and distributing productive forces and shall be ensured by the cre- ation of a mechanism whereby the defense interests would be mani- fested efficiently in the aforementioned measures. The establishment, within the present armed forces, of a compact, well-armed, professionally-oriented regular army with high combat skills and the capability of being deployed quickly when there is a clear and present danger is undoubtedly one of the principal tasks in creating an integral defense system. In order to accomplish this, military units of the armed forces shall be professionally-ori- ented, light and mobile, which is consistent with modern demands and the traditional Mongolian military establishment and the art of war. They also shall have a composite personnel structure based that is on the principle of coercive and voluntary contract military services. In the context of a changing external security environment and within the framework of the reliable ensurance of the country's independence and territorial integrity, there will be created opportu- nities for issues relating to the country's defense to be reflected, on a regular basis, in the planning and activities of the central and local state administrative agencies of the country, for institutionalizing a monitoring mechanism, for enhancing the prestige of the armed forces, for increasing trust in and confidence about the armed forces and for ensuring the country's defense within ta framework of global and regional military trust. ###### Foreign relations and international cooperation In its foreign relations, the defense sector of Mongolia is guided by the basic principles of being multi-pillar, active, equal, 50 ----- and consistent with the national interests as directed by the Govern- ment. This area of activity is aimed at enlisting support from other countries in reforming the armed forces in the military and political, strategic, operational and tactical, military and technical, scientific and technological, education, logistical, and military-purpose eco- nomic sectors; introducing the modern achievements of military sci- ence to the army; conducting training for the staff; and strengthen- ing the material resources of military units. As an Asian-Pacific country, Mongolia is striving to develop an equal and balanced cooperative relationship with the countries of the region, in particular with its neighboring and nearby countries, with respect to the defense sector. ###### One of the prominent elements in the centuries-long, com- prehensive, and neighborly relationship between Mongolia and the Russian Federation was the defense cooperation between them. Presently, defense cooperation between Mongolia and the Russian Federation is based on the "Agreement on military coopera- ###### tion between the Ministry of Defense of Mongolia and the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation" concluded during the visit of the Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces to Mongolia in 1993, and on the "Agreement on military and technical ###### cooperation between the Governments of the Russian Federation and Mongolia" signed during the visit headed by Deputy Minister for Foreign Economic Relations of the RF in the same year. These two agreements serve as the legal basis for newly-developing defense relations and cooperation between Mongolia and the Russian Fed- eration. An official visit to the Russian Federation by high-rankig military officials, headed by the Defense Minister of Mongolia in early 1997, was considered a step towards propelling defense relations between the two neighbors to new heights. During the visit, a con- siderable amount of work was planned to invigorate defense relations between the two countries and an agreement was reached to organize and conducting cooperation on the basis of an annual plan. Mongolia shall strive to develop friendly relations in the de- 51 ----- fense sector with the Russian Federation based on the principles of mutual benefit, balance, and consistency with national interests which will contribute to the strengthening of Mongolia's national interests and security in the Asia-Pacific region. Relations between Mongolia and the PRC have been rapidly developig in the economic, commercial, and educational sectors for the past few years. This tendency is also true in the defense sector since the start of the decade. Defense relations between the two countries are being carried out through mutual visits by high-level military officials and repre- sentatives from military foreign relations and research organizations, an exchange of sport teams and athletes, sending Mongolian service- men to the PRC for language training, and humanitarian aid from ###### the MOD of the PRC to the MOD of Mongolia. The protocol made during the visit of the Defense Minister of Mongolia to China in November, 1997 became an important step towards expanding military cooperation between the two countries. Defense relations and cooperation between Mongolia and the USA are being actively developed within the framework of general ###### cooperation that began in 1991. This cooperation has been develop- ing in the form of sending Mongolian military personnel to the USA to take general military, logistic, medical, and English language courses; fostering cooperation in these sectors; exchanging representatives on a mutual basis; inviting Mongolian officers to participate in interna- tional military conferences and seminars being held in the Asia- Pacific region; and dispatching humanitarian aid to Mongolian civil- ian organizations by the DOD of the USA. ###### The Mongolian-American relationship acquired a new status in 1996, through a directive of the President of the USA, which facilitated the further development of defense relations. A legal basis for military cooperation between the two countries was formed with the signing of a bilateral "Agreement on exchanges and visits in the military sector between the Government of Mongolia and the Gov- ernment of the USA" in June, 1997. The Mongolian side is planning ###### on developing defense relations and cooperation between the two 52 ----- countries in particular directions. Mongolia has already begun to develop its military-to-mili- tary relations with such regional countries as Japan, Kazakstan, In- dia, South Korea and such other countries as the Federal Republic of Germany, Canada, France, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, England, Italy, Belgium, and Israel. This has been accom- plished by facilitating visits at various levels by military representa- tives, accrediting military attaches on a mutual basis, sending Mon- golian servicemen to these countries for study and training, receiving humanitarian aid in the defense sector, exchanging information, and organizing meetings and seminars. Mongolia also considers it vital to establish military relations with other countries of the world, in particular Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, the countries of Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and Southeast Asian countries and is taking active measures in this direc- tion. ###### Defense budget Until the 1990s, grant aid from the Soviet Union constituted a significant percentage of Mongolia's defense expenditures. The cessation of Soviet aid and the emergence of an economic crisis in Mongolia affected the defense budget to a great extent, leading to the need to reduce it from year to year. The defense budget of Mongolia and its actual spending are, at the moment, being deter- mined by the country's economic potential and is undergoing corre- sponding fluctuations every year. ###### Changes in the defense budget's percentage of total stat£jjudg£Lexpejiditures^_QDPv and GNP Indices 1992 1993 1994 _095_ 1996 In total state budget 9.99 7.86 6.92 6.5! _6m_ expenditures In Gross Domestic 2.61 2.92 2.48 2,27 2.14 Product In Gross National 2.70 3.13 2,5$ 2.4 j 2,27 Product 53 ----- The change in the defense budget's percentage of total state budget expenditures, the GDP, and the GNP is attributed to the worsening of the country's economic indicators for the past few years and to the contents of objectives set before the defense sector each respective year, at present, the Government of Mongolia is following its agenda to keep the defense budget at a level not exceeding 6.0% of total state budget expenditures, and 2.2-2.5% of the GDP and GNP, respectively. **Structure of the defense budget** As of now, the defense budget structure consists of the follow- ing elements: - personnel salaries - social provisions - materiel provisions for personnel - equipment rehabilitation - training, cultural and educational activities - research and development (R&D) ###### - other expenses. Below is a presentation of the percentage changes in the above elements of the budget for each specified year: Classification 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 personnel 28-fl 30.0 20,0 29.0 i«.o 27.0 34.0 35.0 salaries social 36.0 35.0 26.0 31.0 25.0 26.0 24.0 20.0 provisions materiel 24.0 25,0 28.0 30.0 50:0 38.0 35.0 37.0 provisions for personnel equipment 3.0 4.0 20.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 1-0 rehabilitation training, 4.0 3.0 3,0 3,0 to 2.0 3.0 3.0 cultural and educational activities research and - - - 0.1 ,: 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.5 development other 5.0 3.0 30 3.9 3.7 2.6 0.9 3.5 expenses TOTAL; 10&0 100,0 100.0 ino.0 Mo 100.0 100.0 100.0 54 ----- Salary for personnel decreased in 1991 and 1993 compared to the previous years , however, it registered a 1-7% increase per annum in 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995, and 1996. Nevertheless, throughout these years, when the devaluation of currency was at a high rate, the salaries (in terms of purchasing power) of personnel steadily decreased. In 1989, expenses for social provisions constituted 36% of the budget, whereas in 1990-1996, after being decreased year after year, amounted to 20% of the total. This is due to the steady reduction in the number of servicemen. Expenses for personnel materiel provisions amounted to 24% of the budget in 1989, whereas in 1990-1996 they experienced a constant increase as a result of increased prices for materiel, electric- ity, heat, and fuel as Mongolia transitioned to a market economy. Expenses for equipment rehabilitation constituted 3% of the budget in 1991. They grew by 1-17% in 1990, 1991, and 1994, were stable in 1992, 1993, and 1995, and decreased by 2% in 1996. This constant fluctuations in expenditures was due to the unstable er^- nomic situation in the country during that time. There were no significant percentage changes in the budget for training, cultural and educational activities, R&D, 3nd other expenses during these years. ###### Deiense Jsudgel^xpenditures for personnel The distribution of defense budget expenditures for personnel in 1989, 1991, and 1996 is shown below as a percentage of the total: PERSONNEL 1989 1991 1996 commissioned and non-commissioned 39 37 49 officers sergeafits and soldiers 49 47 34 civilian personnel 12 16 17 55 ----- Expenses for officers and non-commissioned officers consti- tuted 39% of defense expenditures in 1989, 47% in 1991, and 49% in 1996; for civilian personnel the numbers were 12% in 1989, 16% in 1991, and 17% in 1996 for sergeants and soldiers the expenses amounted to 49% in 1989, 37% in 1991, and 34% in 1996. The trend is related, ###### on one hand, to the steady reduction in the number of sergeants and soldiers, and on the other, to the implementation of the objective of making the armed forces professionally-oriented. Thus, the number of commissioned and non-commissioned officers and civilian person- nel has increased its proportion of the entire military personnel. Below are the respective percentages of servicemen and civil- ian personnel in the defense budget for personnel salaries: m ###### The percentage of personnel salaries in the total budget was 78% in 1989, 74% in 1990, 72% in 1991, and 70% in 1996 for servicemen, whereas for civilian personnel the numbers were 22% in 1989, 26% in 1990, 28% in 1991, and 30% in 1996. This is because many posts that were previously occupied by enlisted personnel were changed to civilian states. 56 ----- ###### CHAPTER FOUR ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA Armed forces and their mission Structure and organization Development trends Civilian support activities • Civil defense activities • Construction corps activities ----- **_ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA_** **_Lieutenant General_** **_G. Damdinsuren_** **_Chief of the General Staff of_** **_Armed Forces of Mongolia_** **The armed forces and their mission** Article 11 of the Constitution of Mongolia, adopted in 1992, declares: 1. The duty of the State is to secure the country's indepen- dence and ensure national security and public order. 2. Mongolia shall have armed forces for self-defense. The structure and organization of the armed forces and rules of military service shall be determined by law. To implement these constitutional provisions, Mongolia has been undertaking complex measures for structural and organizational reform of its armed forces, and creating legal, social, economic and military-strategic bases for their activities. The Mongolian Armed Forces are the system of state military institutions designed to defend the country by military means against external armed incursion, and aggression. The mission of the Mongolian Armed Forces is defined by the Law on the Defense of Mongolia as follows: 59 ----- 1. To defend the independence, sovereignty and territorial integ- rity of Mongolia against external armed incursion and aggression; 2. To safeguard the inviolability of the air frontiers of the coun- try; 3. To provide military training for citizens of military service age and reservists, and upgrade their military professional specialty. And in addition: - To participate, if necessary, in eliminating the consequences of natural disasters and other calamities, and the use of mass de- struction weapons; - To engage construction and engineering troops and organiza- tions in construction activities on a contractual basis; - To engage some military units and organizations, with the prior permission of the Commander-in-Chief and in accordance with decisions of the Member of Government in-charge of defense matters, in civilian economic activities, unless this engagement shall affect their combat readiness. The Law on the State Border of Mongolia permits the Com- mander-in-Chief to use some units of general purpose troops, if necessary, to guard the state borders. According to the Law on State of Emergency, some army units could be involved in eliminating domestic emergency situations and the consequences thereof. The Law provides detailed descrip- tions of the tasks for units involved. The Law prohibits the use of the armed forces in any manner against the state and social system, or civilian rights and interests ensured by the Constitution and laws. Detailed definition of the missions and limits of the armed forces provides a basis for state and civilian control over the armed forces, as well as a basis for rational determination of an adequate size and number of troops and their equipment. The provision of the Constitution which states that "station- ing foreign troops in the territory of Mongolia, and allowing them to cross the state borders for the purpose of passing through the country's 60 ----- territory shall be prohibited unless appropriate law is passed" reflects the peaceful nature of Mongolia's foreign policy. Violation of this Constitutional provision by foreign troops crossing the state border without prior legislation shall be considered military aggression. In this case, the use of the Mongolian Armed ###### Forces for their primary purpose shall be legally approved. The Constitution of Mongolia provides assurances for its neighbors by stating that there shall be no military threat to them by Mongolia itself, or from the territory of Mongolia. This should provide favor- able conditions for ensuring Mongolia's own security. ###### Structure and organization In accordance with the present military-political and mili- tary-strategic external environment and trends, the country's eco- nomic and other capabilities, and changes in the armed forces' missions, the following basic principles shall be observed by Mongolia in establishing its armed forces: ###### - state governance of the armed forces; - civilian control over the armed forces' activities; ###### - the adequacy of the armed forces' structure, organization, combat readiness and equipment to carry out their missions in peace and war time; ###### - the permanent readiness of the armed forces to fulfill their main missions ###### - replenishment of the armed forces' personnel by draft and voluntary contract recruitment; ###### - compulsory training of every serviceman in a military specialty; - the supremacy of law, tight discipline and high organization; - centralized command and unified directives. Basis changes in the mission and organization of the armed forces provided the basis for re-definition of their structure, organi- 61 ----- zation, and number of personnel and equipment. This was also associated with the realization that the present favorable military- political situation in the world and the Asia Pacific region provided the possibility of substantial reductions in the armed forces, thereby easing a burden on the national economy. Reduction of the Mongolian Armed Forces started in 1988 with the exclusion of a Combined Army structure, and dissolution of the combined army headquarters and its subordinate units. In 1989, armed forces personnel were cut again by 13,000 men. Concurrently, the equipment of two motor rifle divisions was put in long-term conservation and only a small number of personnel were kept for equipment maintenance, servicing and protection. The Air Force was also reduced when 18 combat aircrafts were excluded from the service. Two thousand military trucks, 60 tanks and 30 armored personnel carriers were re-equipped for civil- ian use and transferred to civilian organizations. In the early 1990s, there was 32.6 per cent cut in the person- nel of main combat units which became under strength or cadre. All these were contributions by Mongolia, to common efforts for strength- ening peace and security in the world and the Asia Pacific. Through the Law on the Defense of Mongolia, the old struc- ture of the armed forces, which consisted of the Mongolian People's Troops and Border and Internal Troops, was changed in 1993. Now the Mongolian Armed Forces comprise 5 components: General Pur- pose Troops, Air Defense Forces, Construction Corps, Civil Defense Forces and Mobilization Reserves* The Border Troops and Internal Troops were defined as "Other troops" which will become part of the armed forces in a state of war with a foreign country or a state of war. The general purpose troops, a core of the armed forces, are the main force to defend the country by military means. In peace- time, the general purpose troops direct their activities toward ensur- ing the mobilization readiness of the Mongolian Armed Forces, providing military training for the population, forming personnel resources, and organizing the maintenance, protection and servicing 62 ----- of military equipment and material reserves. Depending on the orga- nizational specifics of military units and organizations, the general purpose troops are divided into combat, on-combat-duty, training, training combat, and stockpile and service units. In time of peace and war, the air defense forces are to safe- guard the inviolability of air the frontiers of the country and to defend its economic and administrative centers and other vitally important regions from enemy attack. In peacetime, the construction corps are to pursue construc- tion activities. At the same time, they are to be trained to fulfill missions according to mobilization requirements. In time of peace and war, the civil defense forces are to be ready to provide rescue and relief activities in case of the use of mass destruction weapons, of natural disasters and other large-scale ca- lamities and industrial accidents. Mobilization reserves consist of reservists who are intended to expand the armed forces by mobilization in order to replace losses incurred in wartime. Mongolia seeks to emulate the defense concepts of small and medium nations as a model for its armed forces, which was one of the factors in the selection of the above-mentioned structure for its armed forces. Organizationally, the Mongolian Armed Forces consists of a military command body; service branch units; construction, logistic and technical units; military training; research; cultural and medical establishments; and economic entities. The decision to form or dis- solve these units is made by the Government in consultation with the President of Mongolia and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed ###### Forces. Also, the Government exercises the power to define the place of a unit's dislocation, and issues permission for the use of land. According to the Law on the Defense of Mongolia, the per- sonnel of the Armed Forces shall consist of military servicemen, reservists and civilian personnel employed by military units and orga- 63 ----- nizations on a labor contract basis. This provision enables civilian personnel working in military units, training, research, cultural, con- struction and medical establishments, and economic entities to at- tain a legal status close to that of the serviceman. The general command of the Mongolian Armed Forces is exercised by the State Great Hural, the President, the Government, and the Member of Government in charge of defense matters within the powers provided to them by the Constitution and other laws. Civilian control of the armed forces is performed through control over the implementation of the legal provisions on defense, the execution of professional military command of the armed forces, and monitoring of the defense budget financing and expenditures. Professional military command of the armed forces is ex- ecuted by the General Staff of the Armed Forces, chiefs and staffs of service branches, commanders and staffs of military units, and mili- tary and civil defense staff of provinces, the capital city and districts within their respective competence. The General Staff of the Armed ###### Forces is the central institution of military command. The Chief of the General Staff carries out his duties under the governance of the Commander-in-Chief and the Member of Government in charge of defense matters. As a result of reform processes started in 1997, main units of the Mongolian Armed Forces were reorganized into brigades. In peacetime, sub-units of brigades will have a mixed personnel organi- zation, i.e. of constant combat readiness, training, and under strength. At present, the general purpose troops of the armed forces comprise motor rifle brigades, artillery brigade, independent motor rifle battal- ion, independent combat aircraft unit and other combat and combat supply and service units. ###### On 1997, the Mongolian Armed Forces has 20,000 personnel, of which 500 were the in the civil defense forces and 1500 in the construction corps. 44.8 per cent of total personnel were one-year term conscripts, 8 per cent were students of military training estab- lishments, and the rest were officers and non-commissioned officers, the nucleus of the Armed Forces. 64 ----- The Mongolian Armed Forces has in service 650 tanks, 120 light armored reconnaissance vehicles, 400 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 300 armored personnel carriers, 300 towed artillery, 130 multiple rocket launchers, 140 mortars, 200 anti-tank guns, 24 com- bat aircraft, 12 armed helicopters, 15 light, 19 middle, and 3 heavy transport aircraft, and 150 air defense guns. The mobilization reserves of the armed forces are 137,000. ###### Development trends The main development trends of the Mongolian Armed Forces in the near future will be: _First. Further upgrading of the peacetime organizational struc-_ ture of the armed forces; maintaining the number of troops at the existing level; and legally limiting defense expenditures to a certain percentage of GDP. This will be a concrete step towards strengthening military confidence with neighboring countries. In addition, it will make defense spending in the state budget transparent, and will create a basis for rational scientific planning and use of manpower resources. _Second. Steady implementation of the policy to make the_ armed forces more professional-oriented and capable. It means, by adjusting the armed forces establishment, to bring structure and organization of military units, personnel replen- ishment methods, training, service and life conditions, supply and guarantees for the military closer to the modern professional army standards. The objective can be reached, initially, by forming a few new units with a specially trained professional staff, and then by changing functioning regimes of existing military units and providing them with relatively constant personnel. _Third. Upgrading present military service rules to world stan-_ dards. According to the amendments to the Law on the Military Duties of Citizens and the Legal Status of Military Personnel (Octo- ber 1997) the long-term contractual services of officers and non- commissioned officer's and the fixed term draft services of privates 65 ----- and sergeants should be supplemented in the near future with the following new forms of military service: - private and sergeant's contractual service on the voluntary basis. This would be a new form of service for the Mongolian Armed Forces. The first term of this contractual service for privates and sergeants would be 24 months, and the contract could be prolonged continuously up to the age limit established for private and sergeant's active service. - alternate service. Due to religious or moral reasons, indi- viduals could choose an alternate form of military service. - compensation payment. Citizens who did not physically serve in the army for the term defined by law by the time they reached the age limit for private and sergeant's service would make a compensation payment as a form of alternate service. Forms of military service will be developed and enriched further in content. The reason for the introduction of various forms of military service is to provide greater possibilities for every citizen to fulfill his/her duty to defend the motherland and to serve in the army. _Fourth. The state policy to have a compact and capable armed_ force will be continuously observed in the future. It will be imple- mented, by decreasing the number of personnel and pieces of equip- ment and by increasing the combat capability of the troops. In this regard, a vital objective of armed forces development is the further improvement of the military training system. These changes in the military training system aim toward forming a new training system for the regular staff and mobilization reserves of the armed forces. A particularly important task is to create an effective system for training conscripts (contract service- men) in a short period of time, and intensive retraining of mobiliza- tion reserves on a territorial basis. _Fifth. Rational, systematic modernization of the armed forces'_ equipment. Due to the self-defense nature of the Mongolian Armed Forces mission, prime attention will be paid to modernization of our early warning systems. Air and satellite surveillance systems and 66 ----- other modern capabilities necessary for border protection shall be strengthened. Equipment which is now in service shall be maintained through long-term conservation. _Sixth. Balancing and properly locating military units. At present,_ 72.7 per cent of total personnel are serving in the central areas of the country, 500 or more kilometers from the state borders. The number of troops serving in remote units has been re- duced twice since 1990. This trend will be continued. Also during this period, 16 military units in border areas were dissolved or reor- ganized. _Seventh. Establishig regular relations with the armed forces of_ other countries, and actively participating in common efforts to create global and regional security systems. Plans to participate in the UN's peacekeeping forces is a reflection of peaceful desire of the Mongolian Armed Forces. ###### Civilian support activities **• Civil Defense Activities** The State and Government of Mongolia, within the frame- work of implementing comprehensive policies to strengthen the new political system, overcome the economic difficulties of the present transition period, and improve social relations, have been taking systematic measures to provide security for its citizens. The develop- ment of civil defense is one of the defense policy priority objectives. The Law on the Civil Defense of Mongolia, adopted by the State Great Hural in 1994, states that "Civil defense is a complex of measures aimed at the prevention, protection and rescue of the population and their property from afflictions caused by mass de- struction weapons, natural disasters and accidents; elimination of the consequences thereof; and training citizens for appropriate action". Previously, civil defense was tasked to act only during external threats, but now, it has become much broader and includes perpetual tasks such as those mentioned above. 67 ----- Civil Defense troops are responsible for the following mis- sions: to inform the public about the use of mass destruction weap- ons, natural disasters and accidents; to train the population in meth- ods of protecting against them; to organize, prepare and provide for the combat readiness of its personnel and the means necessary for protection and rescue actions; to protect livestock, pets, foodstuff, fodder, water resources and property from radioactive and chemical poisoning and bacteriological infection, and to eliminate consequences thereof; and to organize rescue and relief operations in cases of natural disaster and accident. Civil defense activities vary depending on population and industrial density and climate conditions. These activities are orga- nized on a territorial and industrial basis and is indifferent to prop- erty form. The role of government in directing civil defense was defined in the following legal acts. First, the Law on the Government of Mongolia, in the part on the Government's power to provide for the country's defense and security states that the Government" shall direct civil defense activities to prevent and protect the population from natural disasters and accidents, and to eliminate the conse- quences thereof. Second, the Law on the Civil Defense of Mongolia defines the power of the Head of the State Civil Defense (Prime Minister) as: "to develop the legaal basis of state policy on civil defense; to direct civil defense activities on a national level; to submit to the Government and supervise implementation thereof planned measures for the prevention, protection and rescue of the population from mass destruction weapons, natural disasters and accidents, and the elimination of consequences thereof through and urgent rehabilitation work; to declare certain levels of civil defense readiness; to appoint and define activity guidelines for the State Permanent Emergency Commission, which is responsible for the prevention of disasters, accidents, threats, the protection and rescue of the population, the elimination of the consequences thereof, and the urgent organization of rehabilitation work". The Civil Defense Directorate is the main executive body responsible for implementing civil defense measures. The Directorate functions under the direct guidance by the Minister of Defense. 68 ----- In coordinating and directing efforts against the threat of natural disasters and accidents, the Civil Defense Directorate is authorized to collect and assess all data relating to the civil defense situation; to carry out an operative decision to eliminate consequences, and involve the personnel and technical capabilities of specialized organizations in order to implement the decision; and to co-ordinate and supervise the joint efforts of all participants. The effectiveness and reliability of the civil defense system has been tested and proven during more than 1,100 forest and steppe fires, 2 heavy snowfalls and several snowstorms, floods and an outbreak of epidemic disease, 2 airplane crashes and other disasters and accidents that have occurred since 1990. The governors of administrative units (provinces, capital city, soums and districts), in their capacity as heads of local civil defense, play an important role in the integral civil defense system. The governors of administrative units provide advanced assessment of possible natural disasters and accidents in their respective territories, plan and implement measures to prevent, protect and rescue the population and eliminate the consequences of disasters, prepare and organize available rescue capabilities, provide for their readiness, and conduct civil defense training and education for local civil defense authorities, specialized teams and the general population. Since the 1980s, civil defense exercises have been directed toward the solution of urgent problems of organizations and enter- prises, the improvement of their operational stability, and reducing their vulnerability to natural disasters and industrial accidents. This is a mutually beneficial practice that leads to common support and understanding. In recent years, during the national civil defense exercises, 1,555 shelters for cattle and 1,350 wells were built and 6,950 shelters and 4325 wells were mended. One million four hundred thousand cattle were mored 100-300 kms from areas affected by draught and one million cattle were mored 25-210 kms from areas affected by heavy snowfall. In addition, 74 km of roads were mended and im- ###### proved. The Law on the Defense of Mongolia permits the Mongolian 69 ----- Armed Forces to be involved in civil defense activities. This was an important change brought about by the armed forces reform policy. During the biggest forest and steppe fires in 1996 and the heavy snowfalls of 1996-1997, contingents of the armed forces participated in civil defense activities in of 5-8 provinces. They spent from 15 days to 2 months fighting deadly fires, transported 600 tons of fodder distances of 300-1,000 km, cleaned snow-blocked roads, and evacu- ated cattle-breeders' families and their livestock from the affected areas. **• Construction Corps Activities** According to the Fundamentals of the Military Doctrine of Mongolia, the main mission of the construction corps in peacetime is to pursue construction activities and, at the same time to be trained to fulfill missions according to mobilization requirements. Units and organizations of the construction corps regularly participate in military exercises, command and staff games, and operational training assemblies conducted in accordance with Minis- try of Defense and General Staff training programs. Acting on the decisions and directives of competent state and local administrative bodies, they build military and civil defense objects, construct and reconstruct roads and bridges, and participate in civil defense activi- ties during such natural disasters as fires, snowfalls and so forth. In observance of the General Staff of the Armed Forces training program, the construction corps headquarters annually works ###### out and accomplishes a general plan and instruction on the organi- zation of military training for construction troops. Training for privates and sergeants consists of 28 days of primary and basic military training and 45 days of military profes- sional specialty training (a total of 316 hours). Command training for officers and non-commissioned officers is organized in the form of annual assemblies, the dates of which depend on the construction and production tasks of subordinate units and organizations. During their service in the construction corps, conscripts ac- quire a military professional specialty through military training pro- 70 ----- gram and a speciality in the construction field through on-the-job training, as well. In the last 20 years, the construction corps of the Mongolian Armed Forces trained more than 40 thousand people in about 30 specializations. In other words, a citizen of Mongolia who serves in the construction corps acquires a military professional specialty and becomes a member of the armed forces reserves. In addition, a specialty in the construction field allows him to participate in the peaceful construction of the country. In the years of transition to a market economy (1991-1996), the construction corps executed construction and capital repair work worth 4525.6 million tugriks, completed construction of 179 objects and buildings with a total basic funding of 2715.1 million tugriks, produced construction materials worth 556.6 million tugriks, and accomplished 69.4 million tons/kilometers of transportation service work. As a result, the construction corps of the Mongolian Armed Forces has been covering all their of expenses, except for training, conscription and clothing costs, since 1980. 71 ----- _Professional unit before exercise_ _Exercise of air defense unit_ 73 ----- **_Fire support_** 74 ----- _rifle_ 75 ----- _Last checking before training flight_ 76 ----- _Field exercise_ _Officer of professional unit_ 77 ----- ----- ###### APPENDICES 1. Northeast Asian states (map) 2. Military balance of the major powers in Northeast Asia (map) 3. List of countries with diplomatic relations with Mongolia (table) 4. Mongolia's membership in international organizations (table) 5. Treaty on friendly relations and cooperation between Mongolia and the Russian Federation 6. Treaty on friendly relations and cooperation between Mongolia and the People's Republic of China 7. List of some agreements and treaties on security issues concluded by Mongolia with its neighboring countries 8. Assessment of the external security environment of Mongolia 9. Establishment of nuclear-weapon-free zones on the basis of arrangements freely arrived at among the states of the region concerned 10. Provisions of the major laws of Mongolia on security and defense issues 11. Extract from the Action Program of the Government of Mongolia 1996-2000 12. Concept of national security (chart) ----- 13. System of ensuring national security (chart) 14. Integral defense system (chart) 15. Civilian control of the armed forces (chart) 16. Defense government model (chart) 17. Structure of the Ministry of Defense (chart) 18. Business strategic model of MOD (chart) 19. Structure and main content of defense doctrine (chart) 20. Changes in the number of military units (map) 21. Structure and structural changes of armed forces person- nel (diagram) 22. Changes in main arms stock (diagram) 23. Educational and professional categories of officers corps (diagram) 24. System of armed forces personnel training (chart) 25. System of military education and training (chart) 26. Integral civil defense management system (chart) 27. Common civil defense training system (chart) 28. Public opinion on defense policy and activities ----- **_NORTHEASTASIAN SLOES_** ###### RUSSIAN FEDERATION **,** **'** **REPUBLIC** **OF KOREA** ----- **_MILITARY'BALANCE_** ###### IN C c ### • **ibices in f%rf'** **239^500** LI JB. **Japanese SDF** { US foKKs in: Northeast Asia **_Sounes: HSS, Military Balance 1996/1997 and oilier*_** ----- _Appendix 3_ _LIST OF COUNTRIES WITH DIPLOMATIC_ _RELATIONS WITH MONGOLIA_ States **Date** Russian Federation 1921.11.05 Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea 1948.10.48 Republic of Albania 1948.05.24 Peoples Republic of China 1949.10.16 Republic of Poland 1950.04.16 Republic of Bulgaria 1950.04.22 Republic of Hungary 1950.04.28 Romania 1950.04.29 Socialist republic of Vietnam 1954.11.17 Republic of India 1955.12.14 Union of Myanmai 1956.09.26 Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1956.11.20 Republic of Indonesia 1956.12.22 Republic of Guinea 1960.04.22 State of Cambodia 1960.11.30 Republic of Cuba 1960.12.07 Kingdom of Nepal 1961.01.05 Republic of Mali 1961.01.25 Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria 1961.06.25 Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 1962.02.01 Republic of Afghanistan 196 2.02.01 Republic of Iraq 1962.02.05 Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1962.07.06 Lao People's Democratic Republic 1962.09.12 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1963.01.23 Arab Republic of Egypt 1963.04.02 Republic of Austria 1963.07.01 Republic of Finland 1963.07.15 Swiss Confederation 1964.05.22 Kingdom of Sweden 1964.06.30 French Republic 1965.04.27 Republic of Ghana 1965.12.07 Republic of Congo 1966.12.31 United Republic of Tanzania 1967.01.17 Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia 1967.01.24 Hellenic Republic 1967.03.03 Islamic Republic of Mauritania 1967.06.30 Syrian Arab Republic 1967.07.31 Kingdom of Norway 1968.01.11 Kingdom of Denmark 1968.08.05 83 ----- Republic of Turkey 1969.06.24 Republic of Singapore 1970.06.11 Centra! African Republic 1970.06.18 Republic of Italy 1970.06.29 Republic of Sudan 1970.07.07 Kingdom of Morocco 1970.07.14 Republic of Yemen 1970.08.28 Somali Democratic Republic 1971.02.28 Islamic Republic of Iran 1971.05.20 Republic of Chile 1971.06.01 Kingdom of Belgium 1971.07.08 Argentine Republic 1971.09.07 Malaysia 1971.09.08 Federal Republic of Nigeria 1971.09.21 Japan 1972.02.24 Kingdom of Netherlands 1972.03.06 Peoples Republic of Bangladesh 1972.06.28 Commonwealth of Australia 1972.09.15 Republic of the Philippines 1973.10.11 Canada 1973.11.30 Republic of Cyprus 1973.12.19 Federal Republic of Germany 1974.01.31 Kingdom of Thailand 1974.03.05 Republic of Iceland 1974.06.04 Republic of Portugal 1974.07.26 Republic of Zaire 1975.02.04 New Zealand 1975.04.08 State of Kuwait 1975.06.17 United Mexican States 1975.09.25 Republic of Mozambique 1975.09.27 Republic of Guinea Bissau 1975.10.14 Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe 1975.10.22 Republic of Cape Ve rde 1975.11.19 Peoples Republic of Angola 1976.02.10 Republic of Fiji 1976.03.15 Republic of Liberia 1976.04.23 Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1976.06.16 Papua New Guinea 1976.06.16 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 1976.07.11 Republic of Tunisia 1977.02.15 Republic of Benin 1977.04.02 Republic of Costa Rica 1977.06.06 Spain 1977.07.04 Republic of Zambia 1978.10.02 Palestine 1979.04.25 Republic of Madagascar 1979.05.11 Republic Malta 1979.08.08 Republic of Nicaragua 1979.10.13 Republic of Guyana 1979.12.15 Grenada 1980.07.25 Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 1981.05.21 84 ----- Republic of Seychelles 1981.08.21 Republic of Ecuador 1982.10.30 Republic of Zimbabwe 1984.08.30 Kingdom of Lesotho 1985.07.02 Burkina Faso 1985.10.25 Republic of Maldives 1985.11.06 Republic of Senegal 1985.12.12 Republic of Cote D'lvoire 1986.07.06 United States of America 1987.01.27 Federal Republic of Brazil 1987.06.19 Republic of Colombia 1988.08.10 Republic of Bolivia 1989.03.01 Republic of Korea 1990.03.26 Republic of Namibia 1990.10.30 Republic of Venezuela 1990.12.14 Israel 1991.10.02 Republic of Latvia 1991.10.15 Republic of Estonia 1991.11.20 Republic of Lithuania 1991.12.11 Ukraine 1992.01.21 Republic of Kazakstan 1992.01.22 Republic of Belarus 1992.01.24 Republic of Uzbekistan 1992.01.25 Republic of Moldova 1992.01.30 Republic of Armenia 1992.01.30 The Holy See 1992.04.04 Republic of Azerbadjan 1992.04.16 Republic of Kyrgyzstan 1992.04.22 Republic of Turkmenistan 1992.04.23 Republic of Tajikistan 1992.04.24 Sultanate of Oman 1992.04.27 Republic of Georgia 1992.05.12 State of Brunei Darussalam 1992.05.18 Republic of Slovakia 1993.01.01 Czech Republic 1993.01.01 Republic of Slovenia 1993.02.18 Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina 1993.0224 Republic of Croatia 1993 03 10 Republic of South Africa 1994.05.25 Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 1995.06.27 United Arab Emirates 1996.04.01 Republic of Peru 1996.12.05 Republic of Uruguay 1997.10.07 85 ----- **_Appendix 4_** **_MONGOLIA'S MEMBERSHIP_** **_IN_** **_INTERNATIONAL_** **_ORGANIZATIONS_** 1. United Nations ' ' _••:•'• ._ :;/: 2. Economic arid Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 3. UN Children's Fund 4. UN Conference on Trade and Development 5. Conference on Disarmament 6. UN Development Program 7. UN Environment Program 8 UN Population Fund 9. UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 10. World Health Organization 11. World Meteorological Organization ^ : 12. Universal Postal Union 13. International Telecommunication Union 14. UN Industrial Development Organization 15. International Labor Organization 16. International Atomic Energy Agency 17. Food and Agriculture Organization 18. World Intellectual Property Organization 19. International Civil Aviation Organization 20. International Monetary Fund 21. World Bank 22. World Tourism Organization 23. International Fund for Agricultural Development 24. International Maritime Organization 25. International Seabed Authority 26. International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 27. Asia, Africa Legal Consultative Committee 28. Group of 77 _[_ 29. Non-Alignment Movement 30. Asian Development Bank 31. Interpol 32. Asia-Pacific Telecommunity 33. International Civil Defence Organization 34. World Customs Cooperation Council 35. World Trade Organization 36. Regional Centre for Space, Science and Technology Education for Asia and the Pacific '";' • 37. International Vaccine Institute 38. International Bureau of Expositions 39. International Road Traffic Organization 40. Interparliamentary Union 86 ----- **_Appendix 5_** **_TREATY ON FRIENDL Y RELATIONS AND_** **_COOPERATION BETWEEN MONGOLIA_** **_AND THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION_** Mongolia and the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as the "Contracting Parties"): proceeding from their traditions of friendly relations, trust, and all-round cooperation, wishing to develop and reinforce an equal and mutually advantageous cooperation between Mongolia and the Russian Fed- eration and, for that purpose, striving to strengthen the legal basis thereof in accordance with the existing situation and development in international relations, confirming their commitment to the objectives and principles of the Charter of the United Nations Organizations, aspiring to contribute to the ensurance of peace and security in the Asia-Pacific region, and to create an atmosphere of mutual understanding and cooperation therein, noting that the Treaty concluded between the People's Gov- ernment of Mongolia and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in November 5, 1921 played a significant role in the development of good-neighborly relations and cooperation be- tween the two countries, and proceeding from the provisions of the Declaration on friendship and goodneighborly cooperation concluded between the MPR and the USSR in February 12, 1991, have agreed as follows: **_ARTICLE I_** The Contracting Parties will consider themselves as friendly nations and, in their relationship, will be guided by the principle of 87 ----- respect for each other's state sovereignty and independence, of being equally sovereign, of non-use of force, of not threatening with force, of inviolability of state frontiers, of territorial integrity, of non-inter- ference in internal affairs; respect for fundamental human rights and liberties, for equality of rights, for the right to decide destiny on their own; and by the principle of fulfilling in good faith their obligations and cooperating as good neighbors and partners. **_ARTICLE 2_** The Contracting Parties will develop an equal and mutually advantageous cooperation on a sustainable and long-term basis in the political, cultural, arts, educational, scientific and technological, health, defense, ecological, road and transport, telecommunications, infor- mation, humanitarian and other fields. **_ARTICLE 3_** The Contracting Parties will consult regularly on deepening their bilateral relations and cooperation, as well as on international issues of mutual interest at various levels. The Contracting Parties will contribute towards developing cooperation between the parliaments and other state bodies of the two countries. **_ARTICLE 4_** The Contracting Parties will not take part in a military and political alliance directed against each other and are obligated not to ###### conclude any treaty or agreement incompatible with the ensurance of the sovereignty and independence of the other Party with a third country. Neither of the Party shall allow a third country to use its territory for an aggression or violence against the other Party. The Russian Federation will respect Mongolia's policy aimed at not allowing stationing and transit passing of foreign troops, nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction on and through its territory. 88 ----- **_ARTICLE 5_** The Contracting Parties will inform each other on possible ways and means of remedying situations that one of the Parties perceives as posing threats to international peace and security and that may bring about disasters of international nature. Following the perception of one of the Parties that its security interests have come under threat, the Contracting Parties will, at the request of the above Party, consult each other. **_ARTICLE 6_** The Contracting Parties will, for the purpose of resolving global- and regional-scale international issues pertaining to the ensurance of peace, security, sustained economic development and environmental protection, strengthen their cooperation within the UN and international organizations. **_ARTICLE 7_** The Contracting Parties will cooperate on a bilateral and multilateral basis so as to render all-round support to the mainte- nance of stability, the creation of an atmosphere of confidence and trust, and the promotion of collaboration in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as to the facilitation of contacts among the regional nations in the economic, cultural, humanitarian and other fields. ###### ARTICLES The Contracting Parties will pursue a policy of open economy with each other and develop an equal and mutually advantageous ###### cooperation. For this purpose, they are obligated to mutually provide pleasant conditions for state property and non-state property manu- factories, individuals and other legal entities taking part in the com- mercial, industrial, and financial activities. The Contracting Parties will promote an investment cooperation between themselves or in- volving a third country partner. The Contracting Parties will provide an all-round support to developing border area trade and cooperation. **89** ----- **_ARTICLE 9_** The Contracting Parties will promote the development of co- operation in the railroad, air transport, authored, and other fields of transportation. The Contracting Parties will also take measures to- wards enhancing an access capacity of their roadways and improving an organization of transports passing in transit through their territo- ries. Taking into account the fact that Mongolia is landlocked, the Russian Federation will, in accordance with the norms of interna- tional law, assist the former in exercising its right to have access to the sea. **_ARTICLE 10_** The Contracting Parties will develop cooperation concerning environmental protection, the ensurance of ecological security, col- lective prevention from ecological crisis and elimination of the con- sequences of ecological crisis. For this purpose, the Contracting Par- ties will, aside from exchanging information on a regular basis, con- sult on issues directly related to the interests of one of the Parties or either Parties. **_ARTICLE 11_** The Contracting Parties will provide an all-round support to expanding contacts between their citizens. For this purpose, the Con- tracting Parties will take measures to put in order administrative rules ###### and practices related to mutual transit of their citizens. **_ARTICLE 12_** The Contracting Parties will cooperate on a bilateral and multilateral basis in their combat against organized crime, terrorism, and illegal activities directed at adversely affecting the security of civil air transportation; and against smuggling of arms, drugs, and art- works of cultural and historical value. The Contracting Parties will create conditions necessary for mutual provision of legal assistance in civil, family, and penal pro- ceedings. 90 ----- **_ARTICLE 13_** The Contracting Parties will pay special attention to utilizing achievements of modern technology; cooperating in the field of base and supplementary researches; and creating conditions for imple- mentation of joint programs and projects for the purpose of introduc- ing the results of the above researches to the economy and produc- tion. **_ARTICLE 14_** The Contracting Parties will expand and deepen their ties in the fields of culture, arts, science, historical heritage, education, and information. Apart from assisting in the establishment of direct con- tacts between universities, scientific institutions, and cultural organi- zations and facilitating an exchange of books, periodicals, cinemato- graphic and theatrical works, and tele- and radio-programs, the Con- tracting Parties will also encourage mutual study of the languages thereof. **_ARTICLE 15_** So as to implement this Treaty in accordance with the tenets thereof, the Contracting Parties will cooperate towards facilitating direct contacts between aimags of Mongolia and Republics of the Russian Federation, and other administrative and territorial units at all levels, as well as between state, private, and composite property manufactories, offices and organizations. **_ARTICLE 16_** As per the principles of this Treaty, special agreements will be concluded between the Governments of the two Parties and other authorities on herein mentioned and other issues. **_ARTICLE 17_** The Contracting Parties will settle disputed questions that may arise in their relationship by means of goodwill. In case of the impossibility of settling a disputed question by the means as provided for herein, the Contracting Parties will, in 91 ----- accordance with the UN Charter, choose other means of peaceful settling of the disputed question. **_ARTICLE 18_** This Treaty does not affect the Contracting Parties' obliga- tions under effective bilateral and multilateral treaties and agreements concluded by them with other States. **_ARTICLE 19_** ###### This Treaty will remain in force for 20 years and thereafter will be extended every 5 years unless one of the Contracting Parties notifies the other of its intention to terminate the Treaty, in a written form and 12 months before the expiration date of the Treaty's valid- ity. **_ARTICLE 20_** This Treaty requires a process of ratification and enters into force at the time of exchange of ratification documents. This Treaty was done in Moscow on January 20, 1993 in duplicate in the Mongolian and Russian languages, all texts being equally authentic. **_FOR MONGOLIA_** **_FOR THE RUSSIAN_** **_FEDERATION_** **P.Ochirbat** **B.Yeltsin** 92 ----- **_Appendix 6_** **TREATY ON FRIENDLY RELATIONS AND** **COOPERATION BETWEEN MONGOLIA AND** **THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA** Mongolia and the People's Republic of China (hereinafter re- ferred to as the "Contracting Parties"): noting that the Treaty on Friendship and Mutual Assistance concluded between the Mongolian People's Republic and the People's Republic of China on May 31, 1960 has played an important role in developing the relations between the states, wishing to strengthen the traditional friendship of the peoples of Mongolia and China, expressing their conviction that further development of goodneighborly relations and cooperation between Mongolia and China ###### accords'with the vital interests of the peoples of both states and serves the cause of peace, stability, and prosperity in the Asia-Pacific ###### region, reconfirming their commitment to the objectives and prin- ciples of the UN Charter, and, in view of the above, making a decision to renew the Treaty on Friendship and Mutual Assistance concluded between the Mongolian People's Republic and the People's Republic of China, have agreed as follows: _ARTICLE 1_ The Contracting Parties will develop their goodneighborly rela- tions and cooperation on a basis of mutual respect for each other's independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity, for the principle of mutual non-attack, non-interference in internal affairs, for equal- ity of rights, for mutual advantages, and for peaceful co-existence. 93 ----- **_ARTICLE 2_** 1. The Contracting Parties will consult regularly for the pur- pose of developing the relations between the parliaments and govern- ment bodies, as well as public organizations and local areas of the two states. 2. The Contracting Parties will sustainably develop an equal ###### and mutually advantageous cooperation on a long-term basis in the political, economic, trade, cultural, educational, scientific-techno- logical, health, environmental protection, road and transport, and ###### telecommunications fields. **_ARTICLE 3_** 1. The Contracting Parties will, if there is such a need, consult on the Asia-Pacific region and other international issues of mutual interest. 2. The Contracting Parties will cooperate within the UN and other international organizations for the purpose of developing rela- tions and cooperation between nations and of settling global and regional issues. **_ARTICLE 4_** The Contracting Parties will not take part in any military- political alliance directed against each other and will not conclude any treaty and agreement with a third country that may adversely affect the state sovereignty and security of the other Party. Neither Party will allow a third country to use its territory which may ad- versely affect the state sovereignty and security of the other Party. **_ARTICLE 5_** This Treaty does not affect the Contracting Parties' obligations ###### under bilateral and multilateral treaties concluded by them with other states. 94 ----- **_ARTICLE 6_** This Treaty will remain in force for a long period of time and amendments will be made thereto upon the agreement of the two Parties to that effect. One of the Contracting Parties may notify the other, in a written form and ! year in advance, of its decision to terminate this Treaty. This Treaty requires a process of ratification and enters into force at the time of exchange of ratification documents. This Treaty was done in Ulaanbaatar on April 29, 1994 in duplicate in the Mongolian and Chinese languages, all texts being equally authentic. **_FOR MONGOLIA_** **_FOR THE PEOPLE'S_** **_REPUBLIC OF CHINA_** **P.Jasrai** **Li Pen** 95 ----- **_Appendix 7_** **_LIST OF SOME AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES ON_** **_SECURITY ISSUES CONCLUDED BY MONGOLIA_** **_WITH ITS NEIGHBOR_** **_COUNTRIES_** **_Mongolia-Russia_** 1. Agreement between the Government of Mongolian People's Re- public and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on simplified regime of crossing border by citizens of the MPR and the USSR inhabiting in frontier areas.(1986.01.25, Ulaanbaatar) 2. Treaty between Mongolian Pe'ople's Republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Mongolian-Soviet borderline in west- ern part from N° 41040 height in Tavan Bogd mountain to top of Asgat mountain and in eastern part from NQ 2855.8 height in Great Sayan range to Tarbagan Dakh hill. (1976.10.19, Moscow) 3. Declaration of Mongolia People's Republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on friendship and good-neighborly co- operation. (1991.02.12, Moscow) 4. Agreement between the Government of Mongolia and the Gov- ernment of the Russian Federation on border port and simplified regime of crossing Mongolian-Russian border. (1993.01.20, Ulaanbaatar) 5. Treaty between Mongolia and the Russian Federation on friendly relations and cooperation.(1993.01.20, Moscow) 6. Joint statement of the President of Mongolia and the President of the Russian Federation.(1993.01.20, Moscow) 7. Agreement between the Government of Mongolia and the Gov- ernment of the Russian Federation on cooperation in customs issues. (1993.01.20, Moscow) 8. Agreement on military and technical cooperation between the ###### Governments of the Russian Federation and Mongolia" (1993.04.07, Ulaanbaatar) 9. Agreement on military cooperation between the Ministry of De- fense of Mongolia and the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (1993.06.28, Ulaanbaatar) 10. Agreement between the Government of Mongolia and the Gov- ernment of the Russian Federation on cooperation in border ###### issues.(1994.11.15, Moscow) 96 ----- **_Mongolia- China_** 1. Agreement between the Government of Mongolia and the Gov- ernment of the People's Republic of China on cooperation in customs issues.(1993.09.07, Ulaanbaatar) 2. Treaty between Mongolia and the People's Republic of China on friendly relations and cooperation.(1994.04.29, Ulaanbaatar) 3. Agreement on granting permission for temporary location of cattle- breeders from Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China in the territory of Choibalsan aimag, the Mon- golian People's Republic. (1957.01.06) 4. Protocol of the first intergovernmental negotiations on solution of border issues between the Mongolian People's Republic and the ###### People's Republic of China. (1962.11.17) 5. Treaty on border between the Mongolian People's Republic and the People's Republic of China. (1962.12.26, Beijing) 6. First protocol of joint commission on demarcation of Mongolian- ###### Chinese borderline. (1963.05.20) 7. Protocol on border concluded between the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic and the Government of the People's Republic of China. (1964.06.30) 8. Treaty between the Government of the Mongolian People's Re- public and the Government of the People's Republic of China on Mongolian-Chinese border regime and regulation of border is- sues. (1988.11.28, Beijing) 9. Agreement between the Governments of Mongolia and the People's Republic of China on border ports and the regimes thereon. (1992.06.24, Beijing) 10. Agreement between the Governments of Mongolia and the People's Republic of China on protection and utilization of water re- sources in border areas. (1994.04.29, Ulaanbaatar) 1.Protocol on cooperation and exchanges between the Ministry of Defense of Mongolia and the Ministry of Defense of the People's Republic of China (1997.11.03, Beijing) 97 ----- **_bapendix 8_** **_ASSESSMENT OF THE EXTERNAL SECURITY_** **_ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA_** **_(Working document of the Policy Planning Department_** **_of the Ministry of External Relations)_** **Current International Situation** - It could be concluded that the post-Cold War transition period comes to its final stage. The following factors proving this conclu- sion became certain: a. Economic and trade relations have been gaining importance in international relations, and economic interdependence has increased all along. b. Power of a state has been determined by its trade and eco- nomic position and market access capabilities, rather than by its military-armament power and capabilities. c. The information revolution has deepened interdependence, and involvement of subjects other than a nation-state in inter- national relations has been growing (at the business and civil- ian society level influencing international "agenda". For in- stance, international movement against land-mines was awarded Nobel Prize). d. Non-military-strategic or "non-traditional" threats are posing a danger to security ( brought to attention by the Kyoto Conference and G-8 ). - In short- and mid-term, security prospects perception is positive. While in long-term, it is uncertain due to the following factors: a) fate of territorial disputes; b) growing nationalism; c) terrorism and organized crime; d) consequences of arms sale; ###### e) energy, food, population and ecological security; 0 uneven economic development; g) conflicts of regional nature. - The big powers are interested in stabilization of mutual relations. It was proved by a series of summit meeting of the big powers in 1997. Stable relations between the big powers shall have positive 98 ----- effect on regional and international stability. - Substantial steps have been made in arms control (prolongation of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, signing of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, empowerment of the Chemical Weapon Con- vention and etc.). Internal stability (institutional capabilities, social integrity, con- sensus and socio-economic policies) of nations plays an important role in ensuring regional and international stability. Security of Asia Pacific Region - stable as never before in this century; Economic growth of the region has a great impact on creating cooperation atmosphere. Desire of economic development leads na- tions to an interest in cooperation with others. This, in turn, leads to interdependence of nations, and creates common interest in ensuring stability. - multilateral security talks have been started. ARF is a positive sign of it. - in the absence of a regional security system, the bilateral military arrangements remain to be a stabilizing factor. - the biggest threat' is the Korean Peninsula; start of four-side talks is a good sign which will contribute to the restoration of inter- Korean talks, the conclusion of a peace treaty and ensuring secu- rity of the Korean Peninsula. - relations between big powers such as the USA, China, Russia, Japan and India have vital importance for the region. The most important of them are the Sino-American relations. - ASEAN has been playing an important role in providing stability. - APEC is a reflection of regional economic interdependence; it plays important role in creating an atmosphere of cooperation. - it is necessary to initiate official security talks in Northeast Asia involving countries of the sub-region. Current unofficial forms of negotiations are worth a positive assessment. - it is necessary to underline importance of establishing economic, political and military contacts in ensuring regional stability. 99 ----- **_Appendix 9_** **_ESTABLISHMENT OF NUCLEAR- WEAPON-FREE ZONES_** **_ON THE BASIS OF ARRANGEMENTS FREELY_** **_ARRIVED AT AMONG THE STATES OF THE_** **_REGION CONCERNED_** _(Working paper submitted by Mongolia)_ **A. Principles of establishing a single-State** **nuclear-weapon-free zone** - Total absence of nuclear weapons or parts thereof on the terri- tory of the zonal State; - Adoption of a legally binding document; - General agreement freely arrived at with the neighboring and nuclear-weapon States; - Non-existence of territorial or disputes with neighboring States; - Effective verification and control arrangement; ###### • Recognition of the zone as such by the General Assembly; **B. Elements of a model agreement on single-State** **nuclear- weapon-free zones** - Preamble: usage of terms ("territory", "nuclear weapons", "nuclear material", "nuclear installation", "stationing", etc.); ###### • Definition of principal obligations of parties to the agreement, including of neighboring and nuclear-weapon States; a) Zonal State - pledge of non-possession and non-stationing of nuclear weapons; b) Neighboring States - respect of and support for the zone, com- plying with the provisions, of the agreement, non-dumping of nuclear weapons in the vicinity of the zone; c) Mucleaj^w_eapoji Stales - non-stationing of nuclear weapons, re- fraining from any action that could lead to violation of the status of the zone, pledge of non-use or threat to use nuclear weapons against the zonal State, pledge of assistance in case of an attack or threat thereof; ###### • Peaceful nuclear activities; • Administrative/institutional mechanism; 100 ----- ###### • Control system ( international inspection, implementation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, etc.); Reporting, exchange of information; Consultation; Complaints; Amendment of the agreement; Signature, ratification; Declarations, reservations; Entry into force. **C. Stages of consideration of the guidelines for creating** **single-State nuclear-weapon-free zones** ###### • Defining the scope and elements of single-State nuclear-weapon - free zones (1997); ###### • Elaboration of the principles and elements of the guidelines (1998); • Finalization and adoption of the guidelines (1999). **D. Commitments made by nuclear-weapon States in** **connection with Mongolia's declaration of its** **territory a nuclear-weapon-free zone** **_Russian Federation_** 1. "The Russian Federation will respect Mongolia's policy of not admitting the deployment on and transit through its territory of foreign troops, nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction."[1] 2. "As is known, in 1992 Mongolia declared itself a nuclear-weapon- free zone. The United States, the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and ###### recently France have made statements pledging to respect this status of Mongolia." "For its part Russia, like other nuclear powers, intends to respect the nuclear-free status of Mongolia." "It should be noted that the position of Russia on this issue has ###### been reflected in the Treaty on Friendly Relations and Cooperation _1 Article 4 of the Treaty on Friendly Relations and Cooperation between Mongolia_ _and the Russian Federation of 20 January 1993._ 101 ----- with Mongolia of 20 January 1993. Its article 4 reads, inlejLalia, as follows: ###### "The Russian Federation will respect Mongolia's policy of not admitting the deployment on and transit through its territory of foreign troops, nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction."[2] **_China_** 1. "The People's Republic of China welcomes and supports Mongolia ###### as a nuclear-weapon-free State and will respect its policy of turning its territory into a nuclear-weapon-free zone. The People's Republic of China has already pledged not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against nuclear-weapon-free zones or States. This pledge applies to Mongolia as well."[3] 2. "The Chinese side reiterated once again its respect for Mongolia's ###### independence, State sovereignty, territorial integrity as well as for its nuclear-weapon-free status. The People's Republic of China has expressed its respect for Mongolia's policy aimed at not admitting the deployment on and transit through its territory of foreign troops, nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction."[4] **_United States of America_** 1. "The Government of the United States commends the Govern- ###### ment of Mongolia on its demonstrated adherence to the prin- ciples of the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation (NPT) of Nuclear Weapons, to which Mongolia and the United States are parties, and on its decision in this spirit to declare Mongolia a nuclear-weapon-free zone. In this connection, we also welcome Mongolia's decision to support the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995." _2 Excerpts from the statement made on 1 March 1994 by the spokesman of the_ _Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. (Translation from the Russian.)_ _3 Excerpts from the statement made on 22 October 1993 by the spokesman of the_ _Foreign Ministry of China. (Translation from the Mongolian.)_ _4 Excerpts from Mongolian-Chinese press statement of 29 April 1994. (Transla-_ _tion from the Mongolian.)_ 102 ----- 2. "In adhering closely to the letter and the spirit of the NPT, Mongolia, as a non-nuclear sovereign State friendly to the United ###### States' commitment to seek Security Council assistance for non- nuclear-weapon States who are members of the NPT in the event of a nuclear attack on them, and from US assurance that ###### it would not use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear State not allied with a nuclear-weapon State. We note that other nuclear- ###### weapon States have provided similar assurances." "If Mongolia ever faces a threat and decides to refer the matter to the United Nations Security Council, the United States, along with other members of the Council, would consider appropriate steps to be taken."[5] _United Kingdom #£ Great Britain and Northern Ireland_ ###### "Her Majesty's Government commends the Government of Mongolia on her decision to declare Mongolia a nuclear-weapon- free zone, which reaffirms Mongolia's commitment to the principles ###### of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)." "Mongolia benefits from the security assurances that the United Kingdom offers to all non-nuclear-weapon States who are members of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, whereby the United Kingdom un- dertakes to seek immediate Security Council action to provide assis- tance, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to any non-nuclear-weapon State party to the NPT that is a victim of an act of aggression or an object of a threat of aggression in which nuclear weapons are used. "The United Kingdom also reaffirms its assurance to all non- nuclear-weapon States party to the NPT and other internationally binding commitments not to manufacture or acquire nuclear explo- sive devices, that the United Kingdom will not use nuclear weapons ###### against such States, including Mongolia, except in the case of an attack on the United Kingdom, its dependent territories, its armed forces or its allies by such a State in association or alliance with a nuclear-weapon State."[6] _5 United States Embassy and Department of State press releases of October and_ _December 1993._ _6 Statement made on 1 November 1993 by the Government of the United_ _Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland._ 103 ----- **_France_** ###### "The Republic of France welcomes the decision of the Gov- ernment of Mongolia to declare Mongolia a nuclear-weapon-free zone, thus reiterating its obligations under the Non-Proliferation Treaty." "France reaffirms with regard to Mongolia its earlier declara- tion made with regard to States that do not possess nuclear weapons and that have pledged not to acquire them, not to use nuclear weapons against them, except in case of aggression, in association or alliance with a nuclear-weapon State, against France or against a country that maintains a security arrangement with France." "France, which supports the objective of an indefinite and unconditional extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, welcomes the decision of Mongolia to the same effect."[7] **E. Expression of support for the Mongolia nuclear-** **weapon-free zone by the Non-Aligned States** 1. "They [the Heads of State and Government] welcomed the uni- ###### lateral declaration by Mongolia of its territory as a nuclear- weapon-free zone as a commendable contribution to regional stability and confidence-building."[8] 2. "The Ministers welcomed the effort of Mongolia to institutional- ###### ize its status as a nuclear-weapon-free zone."[9] _7 Excerpts from the statement made on 24 January 1994 by the Ministry of_ _Foreign Affairs of France. (Translation from the French.)_ - Excerpt from the Final Document of the Cartagena Conference of Heads of _State or Government of the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, 18-20 October_ _1995._ _9 Excerpts from the Final Document of the New Delhi Ministerial Conference_ _of the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, 6-8 April 1997._ 104 ----- **_Appendix 10_** **_PROVISIONS OF MAJOR LAWS ON SECURITY_** **_AND DEFENSE ISSUES_** **EXTRACT FROM THE CONSTITUTION OF MONGOLIA** ###### Chapter One Article 4. 3. Stationing of foreign troops in the territory of Mongolia, allowing them to cross the state borders for the purpose of passing through the country's territory shall be prohibited unless an appropriate law is ###### adopted. **Article 11.** 1. The duty of the State is to secure the country's independence, ensure national security and public order. 2. Mongolia shall have armed forces for self-defense. The structure and organization of the armed forces and the rules of military service shall be determined by law. ###### Chapter Two **Article 17.** 1. Citizens of Mongolia while upholding justice and humanism, shall fulfill in good faith the following basic duties: 4) to defend motherland and serve in the army according to law. ###### Chapter Three. Article 25. 1. The State Great Hural may consider at its initiative any issue pertaining to domestic and foreign policies of the country, and shall keep within its exclusive competence the following questions and decide thereof: 105 ----- 9) to define the State borders; 10) to determine the structure, composition and powers of the National Security Council; 13) to institute titles, orders, medals and higher military ranks, to determine the table of ranks in some special fields of State service; 2. Under the following extraordinary circumstances the State Great Hural may declare a state of emergency to eliminate the conse- quences thereof and to restore the life of the population and society ###### to norm: 1) natural disasters or other unforeseen dangers which threaten or may threaten directly the life, health, Well-being and security of the population in the whole or part of the country's territory, occur; 2) public authorities are not able within legal limits to cope with public disorders caused by organized, violent, illegal actions of an organization or a group of people threatening the constitu- tional order and existence of the legitimate social system. 3. The State Great Hural may declare a state of war if public disor- ders in the whole or a part of the country's territory result in armed conflict or create a real threat of an armed conflict, or if there is an armed aggression or real threat of such an aggression from outside. **Article 33.** 1. The President enjoys the following prerogative rights: 7) to confer state titles and higher military ranks and award orders ###### and medals; 10) to head the National Security Council; 12) to declare a state of emergency or a state of war on the whole ###### or a part of the national territory and to order deployment of armed forces when extraordinary circumstances described in Sections 2 and 3 of Article 25 of this Constitution arise and the 106 ----- ###### State Great Hural concurrently in recess, cannot be summoned at short notice. The State Great Hural shall consider within 7 days the Presidential decree declaring a state of emergency or a state of war and shall approve or disapprove it. If the State Great Hural does not take decision on the matter, the Presi- dential decree shall become null and void. 2. The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the armed ###### forces of Mongolia. **Article 38.** 2. ... the Government shall exercise the following powers: ###### 6) to strengthen the country's defense capabilities and to ensure national security; **EXTRACT FROM THE LAW ON STATE GREAT** **HURAL OF MONGOLIA** **Chapter two** **Article 11. Extraordinary session** 1. In case of the proclamation by the President of a state of emer- ###### gency or a state of war, the State Great Hural shall be convened for an extraordinary session within 72 hours without prior an- ###### nouncement, and members of the State Great Hural shall sum- mon without waiting for a notice. 2. At its extraordinary session the State Great Hural shall consider ###### within 7 days the Presidential decree declaring a state of emer- gency or a state of war for approval or disapproval and decide on other urgent consequences thereof. 3. In case of the extraordinary circumstances leading to declaration of a state of emergency or a state of war appear during a regular or an extraordinary session, the State Great Hural shall postpone any issues to be considered at the session and decide on matter of declaring a state of war. 107 ----- **EXTRACT FROM THE LAW ON PRESIDENT OF MONGOLIA** ###### Chapter two Article 13. The President enjoys the following prerogative rights in regard of ensuring national security and defense: 1. To head the National Security Council. 2. To request information concerning ensuring the national security from relevant organizations; initiate submission of necessary is- ###### sues to the National Security Council meeting; to issue directives and instructions to relevant organizations and officials; and to supervise implementation of the National Security Council rec- ommendations. 3. To require introduction into or information on certain activities ###### of the State Security Agency, if it is regarded necessary for ensur- ing the national security interests. 4. To hear reports and information by authorities in-charge of de- fense, national, economic and ecological security. ###### 5. To define military doctrine, and structure and organization of armed forces in consultation with the Government, and submit to the State Great Hural. 6. To declare a state of emergency or a state of war on the whole or ###### part of the national territory and to order the deployment armed forces when extraordinary circumstances described in Sections 2 and 3 of Article 25 of the Constitution arise and the State Great Hural is concurrently in recess. The Presidential decree shall immediately declared to the population. The State Great Hural shall consider within 7 days the Presidential decree declaring a state of emergency or a state of war and shall approve or disap- prove it. If the State Great Hural does not take decision on the matter, the Presidential decree shall become null and void. 7. In accordance with Section 2 of Article 33 of the Constitution, the President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of Mongolia. 8. To appoint the Chief of the General Staff of Armed Forces of ###### Mongolia in consultation with the State Great Hural. 9. To declare general or partial conscription in accordance with law. 10. To approve general rules of the armed forces. 11. To approve structure and organization of the armed forces in war ###### time and general plan of the armed forces engagement in war; to carry decision on declaring levels of combat readiness and starting 108 ----- ###### combat action. 12. The prerogative powers of the President in case of declaration of a state of war with or a state of war shall be determined by law. **EXTRACT FROM THE LAW ON GOVERNMENT** **OF MONGOLIA** **Chapter two** Article 13. In ensuring the national defense and security, the Gov- ###### ernment shall exercise the following powers: 1. To work out national defense, security and military policies; 2. To implement measures on strengthening armed forces; 3. To direct activities for safeguarding the state frontiers; 4. To work out and implement measures on ensuring the national security; ###### 5. To take measures on forming and replenishing material reserve funds necessary for the country's defense capabilities and ensur- ing national security; 6. To direct measures on protection of state secrets; 7. To undertake measures on protection of the population from ###### natural disasters and other sudden threats, prevention and elimi- nation the consequences thereof, and to direct civil defense ac- tivities. 109 ----- **_Appendix 11_** **_EXTRACT FROM THE ACTION PROGRAM OF THE_** **_GOVERNMENT OF MONGOLIA 1996-2000_** **NATIONAL SECURITY AND FOREIGN POLICY** **_National defence_** ###### To create an integral political, economic, social and military system of national defense of the country, to reform armed forces to make it compact, effective and professionally-oriented, and to strengthen border troops. To determine and separate competence of general govern- ment body and professional military command of the armed forces, to make necessary amendments to related laws and legal acts, and to develop civilian control and public administration management in. military and paramilitary organizations. To establish a legal basis for separate functioning of the cen- tral public administration body responsible for defense matters and the General Staff of Armed Forces. To develop and adopt a legal basis for nomination of a civil- ian minister of defense. To develop an integral defense system addressing the present- day requirements of ensuring national security. To provide priority of political and diplomatic means in de- fense policies of the country, and to promote military foreign rela- ###### tions aimed at training and participation of national military person- nel in foreign military education and training establishments and programs. In order to prepare organizations and citizens for defense of the country, to determine missions of central and local public admin- istrations and economic entities, and to create a mechanism for implementation of their missions in regard of the new socio-eco- nomic relations. To implement a state policy on reform of the armed forces and other troops through making amendments to the Concept of 110 ----- National Security, Military Doctrine and laws related to the defense ###### sector, aiming development of professional military units. To upgrade structure and organization of armed forces and other troops and to create a legal basis for forming professional military units and their training. To form professional military units sequentially, and to determine rational dislocation of military units and mobilization reserves. To create a system of intensive re-training of mobilization reserves on a territorial basis, to study and decide on introducing a contractual service form. In order to provide possibility for citizens to fulfill their mili- tary duties to serve in the army, to amend the present law regulating military service rules (draft, discharge and release) in accordance with the military reform policy, and to introduce classic forms of military service such as professional, draft and alternate service. To upgrade defense budget classification, planning and alloca- tion to the international standard level, and to ensure conditions for normal conduct of peacetime activities of armed forces and other ###### troops. To define armed forces equipment policy in respect of changes in international and regional military-political and geopolitical envi- ronment, and to implement partial modernization of armed forces equipment. ###### To determine and separate competence of the administrative management and the operational command of armed forces and other troops; to develop gradual training system of officers and non- ###### commissioned officers starting from secondary education schools, and promote family inheritance of military professions in correlation ###### with the strengthening of structure and organization of the Military University. To expand air frontiers control capabilities, and to defend the ###### capital city and vital economic zones and objects through utilization of modern, compact and high capacity equipment. To take complex measures on prevention of possible threats t<> national security. Ill ----- To develop an integrated system of local and central civil defense to prevent, protect and rescue civilian objects from the threat of natural disasters and accidents, and eliminate consequences thereof; to set up a mechanism for organization and management of joint civil defense activities of the armed forces, other troops and special- ized organizations. To develop a civil defense insurance system; to study possibil- ity of introducing a system of financing measures directed at elimi- nating, from the insurance deposit paid by a particular entity or organization, the consequences caused by disasters and accidents. ###### To implement the project "Military Housing - 2000" for the purpose of rendering support to military units and organizations to have their own housing. ###### To pay a special attention to border protection issues; to introduce a professional border guard service; to improve equipment and material basis and supply of border troops. To reconfirm border demarcation agreements between Mongolia ###### and the neighboring countries; to take measures on confidence build- ing, and boosting of cooperation efficiency. ###### To improve social and legal guarantees for the border service personnel to protect them from adverse impacts. In order to ensure economic security, to provide stable op- eration of fuel and energy industry, and to take measures on elimina- tion of external dependence for the energy sector. ###### To accelerate implementation of projects on oil extraction and processing. To upgrade information system and ensure information secu- rity. To rehabilitate the agricultural sector; the priority objective is to meet domestic grain and flour demand, and to create food and consumer products reserves. ###### To take measures on ensuring ecological security by upgrading system of Government and public control over the ecological situa- tion. 112 ----- To strengthen further the National Security Council by raising its competence and power, upgrading its structure and organization and improving control over implementation of its recommendations. To develop national capabilities for prevention and protection from natural disasters, and create a unified information data-base. To work out a scientifically based policy for protection, ratio- nal utilization and rehabilitation of natural resources. Within the framework of international cooperation and sup- port, to work out and take measures on meeting obligations of Mongolia in mitigation of ozone layer destruction and climate change impacts, and on preventing danger of possible cross-border inflow of air pol- lution, acid rains and radio-active poisoning. To strengthen control over import and transportation of sub- stances and raw materials hazardous for health and natural environ- ment. To safeguard independence and sovereignty of the country through providing prioritization of vital national interests in foreign policy, pursuing principle of friendly relations with all countries, strengthening the country's position in the international community and enhancing humanitarian relations. To continue the multipillar foreign policy exercised by the previous Government, and to pursue an active balanced foreign policy compatible with the national interests. To maintain a balanced, goodneighborly relationship with the ###### neighboring powers on a basis of equality. To pursue a policy of balancing economic interests in Mongolia of the countries strategically important to the country. To give a priority to relations with the Russian Federation, ###### People's Republic of China and the United States of America, and elevate these relations in regard with developments in international and regional relations. To expand goodneighborly relations and an equal, mutually 113 ----- beneficial cooperation with the Russian Federation in observance of provisions and ideas of the Treaty on friendly relations and coopera- tion between Mongolia and the Russian Federation, and to continue renovation of legal basis for these relations. To aim at a more broader and efficient utilization of possibilities and capabilities of border and regional economic cooperation. To pursue policy of sustainable development of goodneighborly relations and an equal, mutually beneficial cooperation with the People's Republic of China on the basis of universally recognized norms of international relations and provisions and ideas of the Treaty on friendly relations and cooperation between Mongolia and the People's Republic of China. In accordance with the objective of ensuring the national independence and security by political means, and strengthening political democracy and economic reforms, to regard and strive to develop cooperation with the United States as a main pillar of our foreign policy. **_ItLAsia Pacific direction:_** To pursue an active foreign policy in the Asia Pacific region. To set forward an objective to join the APEC, and tightly link this objective with the domestic economic and legal reform policies. Aim- ing at participation in regional economic cooperation and political dialogue processes, to pay primary attention to the promotion of bilateral relations with the countries of the region. Within this: To expand and promote our relations and cooperation with Japan to the level of comprehensive partnership. To build trust and activate cooperation with the ASEAN coun- tries. To develop traditional relations and cooperation with India in accordance with the ideas of the Treaty on friendly relations and ###### cooperation between Mongolia and India. To pay a special attention to upgrading the level of political relations with the Republic of Korea, Australia and Canada, and expanding cooperation with them. Along with developing friendly relations with the countries of 114 ----- Latin America within the framework of international organizations, to work toward establishing trade and economic relations with the influential countries in South America. To give importance to exchange of views at the bilateral and multilateral levels and active participation in multilateral processes and dialogues on security issues in the Asia Pacific Region and Northeast Asia bearing in mind the national security interests of Mongolia. To participate in negotiations on developing Asia-European political and economic cooperation. **_In European direction:_** To strengthen and expand partnership relations with the Eu- ropean Union enhancing cooperation with its member countries, specifically with Germany, Great Britain and France. To develop mutually beneficial cooperation with other Euro- pean countries and, among them, with the Scandinavian countries. _LOL Central ASUL and Middle East direction;_ To develop mutually beneficial relations with the Central Asian countries, and to cooperate with them in the field of ensuring re- gional security. To expand relations with the countries of Middle East, espe- cially in developing trade and economic cooperation with them. In order to ensure national security and economic development of Mongolia, and strengthen its international position, to partici- pate actively in, and utilize effectively benefits of, cooperation within the United Nations and other international organizations. In this regard, to provide a full support of the international community efforts in safeguarding international peace and secu- rity, promoting democracy and human rights, ensuring sustain- able development, protecting environment and resolving social problems. 115 ----- **_Appendix 12_** ###### CONCEPT OF NATIONAL SECURITY The National security of Mongolia represents the status when favourable external at\4 in- ternal cor^ppns are secured to ensure vital national ffllfets of Mongoli^ The vital national interests of Mongolia ^ _________ I ###### n^_ Existence of the I The country^ independence, Relative economic inde- Mongolian people |sovereignty, territorial integ- pendence, sustainable eco- and their civilization frity, inviolability of the State logical development and (frontiers national unity **Factors atrecting \** **_f_** **Guarantees** **V,** **| Ways and meansh** **national security j** **_\_** **_J \_** **V** External The people of j interna- social |—i "j Mongolia and the -j. tioaal ^-- - - -'„! ^-Internal Mongolian State I L.guarantees<—_—s |« political- t t - jp -- immediate « ; political Unilatemi ] f ™ . . t[l] „ temporary i - easun^j t[8]!"[12]!!^" legal _I_ _^^L..._ T~ I economic L M ###### - long-term ; moral^ychcqJ^ j _—^ f'HSSf miimliateral[1] r^Fdiplomatic[7]-[7]-""! L ^' p_ — permanent | ^al _ j measures j L.., -..J[ c] negative impact | /military -. objective i intelligence L "" subjective ###### | legal - **real** **i possible i** ----- Slaietrrear President of **HuraJ** Government Court **Mongolia** Natioipil Sfaiidiip/ Security **Supreme** **Committed' on** ., Council Court **Security and** Foreign Policy State Seers^tary **procurator** of NSC **Othei** Ministry of External Relations Geneml Staff of Armed — i Forces „...— Ministry Border Troops of Directorate Defense Civil Defense State Directorate Security -- Agency General ... . Department - Ministry or Police of Justice Other r | Ministries ? I and Agencies _'\_ ----- **_14_** ###### 0fm _economic?_ **Sub-system of** Sub-systam of | defense policy and military tmimri of activities **popiitation** interests in tf$ **management** economy ###### V Sub-system of evaluation Mongolian Ari^ and equipping Forces $ territory for defense forces needs ----- **_Appendix 15_** _CIVILIAN CONTROL INARMED FORCES_ _CONSTITUTION OF_ _MONGOLIA_ LEGISLATIVE EXECUTIVE HEAD OF POWER POWER STATE Government State Great Hural President of Mongolia, declares a state of war Works out and Commander- or a state of emergency implements defense in-Chief of determines the struc- and military Armed Forces ture, organization and policies, under- service rules of armed takes measures on forces stren; - approves defense budget armed forces ###### \ \ \\ NationalCouncil Security \ \ \ ##### \ **_Minister of Defense_** #### \ \ # \Genera! Staff _of Armed_ _Forces_ _Ministry of Defense_ _Border Troops_ _Directorate_ ----- MUM&L PRESIDENT OF MONGOLIA **National ••Security** GOVERNMENT **Council** **Member of** Government- **Defense Minister** **Ministry'-of** **Other** Defense **Ministries** **Governor of** provinces and **capital city** **Qenemi** **Staff of** **Border** **C*ivil** **Coofdinatiof and** **Troops** Implementing **Aimed** .Agencies **Forces** - * «• ** ** ----- _Appendix 17_ ###### STRUCTURE OF MINISTRY OF DEFENSE MINISTER OF DEFENSE STATE SECRETARY FOR DEFENSE Strategic management, planning **directorate** **Public** **administration** I'S **directorate** GU[ <] **Information,** **monitoring and** **evaluation** **directorate** Finance policy implementation coordination department ----- ###### BUSINESS STRATEGIC MODEL OF MINISTRY OF DEFENSE STRATEGIC BUSINESS MAIN BUSINESS GOALS OBJECTIVES 1.1. T0 work out political, economic, social and legal defense policies, and consult on their realization MISSION 1.2. To consult and promote policy guidance in developingmorcprofessionallyorientedandcapable **ao